Space ethics

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Space ethics, astroethics or astrobioethics [1] is a discipline of applied ethics that discusses the moral and ethical implications arising from astrobiological research, space exploration and space flight.[ citation needed ] It deals with practical contemporary issues like the protection of the space environment [2] and hypothetical future issues pertaining to our interaction with extraterrestrial life forms.

Contents

Specific issues of space ethics include space debris mitigation and the militarization of space, but also more theoretical topics like space colonization, [3] terraforming and space mining. The field also concerns itself with more fundamental moral questions, such as the ethicality of SETI and METI, the intrinsic value of extraterrestrial life, and how humans should treat extraterrestrial non-intelligent life (like microbes) and extraterrestrial intelligent life (and whether this distinction should be made in the first place).

Astroethical issues are often discussed as elements of broader issues such as general environmental protection and imperialism. [4] Astroethics have been described as an emerging discipline gaining in attention, a "necessity for astrobiology" and a "true issue for the future of astrobiology". [1]

Ethical guidelines for space exploration

Planetary Protection

A guiding principle in astroethics is that of Planetary Protection (PP), which seeks to prevent the introduction of lifeforms from Earth to other celestial bodies (forward contamination) [5] and vice versa (back contamination), and thereby possible adverse consequences on existing ecospheres resulting from such contamination. This principle is anchored in the UN Outer Space Treaty, which was established in 1967 and has since been signed and ratified by all space-faring nations.

Precautionary Principle

The precautionary principle was defined in the 1998 Wingspread Conference on the Precautionary Principle. This approach is supposed to guide decisions in the face of a lack of scientific knowledge or consensus on a matter. In a 2010 COSPAR workshop at Princeton University, 26 experts embraced the precautionary principle and concluded that "further investigations before interference that is likely to be harmful to Earth and other extraterrestrial bodies, including extraterrestrial life and the contamination and disturbance of celestial environments", are to be conducted. [6]

Other Astroethical Principles for SETI

SETI astrobiologist Margaret Race and Methodist theologian Richard Randolph have outlined 4 principles for the search for extra-terrestrial life within our solar system: [7]

  1. Cause no harm to Earth, its life, or its diverse ecosystems.
  2. Respect the ecosystem on the surveyed celestial body, do not irreparably alter it or its evolutionary trajectory.
  3. Follow proper scientific procedures with honesty and integrity during all phases of exploration.
  4. Ensure international participation by all interested parties.

Issues

A wide range of concrete issues is discussed in astroethics. Some of them are herein elaborated.

Space debris

Millions of pieces of space debris, defunct artificial objects in space, are orbiting Earth. [8] On average, one cataloged piece of space debris falls back onto the planet every day, potentially posing a risk to organisms and property. [9] In total, an estimated 80 tons of space debris re-enter Earth's atmosphere every year. Due to the high friction with the atmospheric gases, the debris burns up, causing the release of its chemical components, which may contribute to atmospheric pollution and ozone depletion. [10] Additionally, space debris orbits the Earth at extremely high velocity. In Low Earth Orbit, where all crewed space stations and many satellites are located, debris typically reaches speeds of around 8 km/s (approximately 18,000 mph or 29,000 km/h). [8] [11] As a result, even tiny pieces of debris can severely damage or destroy satellites and spacecraft in the event of a collision. This could pose a threat to the lives of astronauts on manned missions and lead to the phenomenon of Kessler syndrome, where a collision of objects in space produces new fragments of space debris that could set off a chain reaction of more collisions. This could render the space around Earth untraversable for space missions and unsuitable for the use of satellites.

As of March 2022, there are no legally binding international laws about who is responsible for the extraction of space debris, or mandating a reduction of new space debris brought into Earth's orbit. [12] However, space agencies of several countries have implemented their own standards and policies to reduce introduction of new space debris, and the Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee (IADC) has been founded to address issues regarding orbital debris. [9] Additionally, JAXA is researching an electromagnetic tether that could be used to pull debris down into the atmosphere. [13]

The moral problem is that those in power (space agencies) can launch material into the Earth's orbit for their own gains without being held accountable for it, while the general public has to bear the consequences (such as atmospheric pollution or the risk of being hit by space debris).[ citation needed ]

Satellite surveillance

Reconnaissance satellites are used for a variety of military and intelligence purposes, such as optical imaging and signals intelligence. It has been noted that such data could infringe on people's privacy and thereby lead to ethical and legal issues. It could also turn into a source of national security threats if such information got into malevolent hands. [14] In order to ensure ethically correct obtainment and use of satellite data, leading researchers in law, meteorology and atmospheric science have called for new policy which would lead to more transparency and security. [14]

Weaponizing space

In 1967, the Outer Space Treaty was signed, spurred by the development of intercontinental ballistic missiles, the Soviet Union's launch of Sputnik, the first artificial satellite, and the following arms race with the United States. The treaty outlaws all kinds of military action (including weapon tests) in space, limits the use of space to peaceful purposes only and ensures that all nations on Earth are free to explore space.

This treaty has since been called into question multiple times, especially by former President of the United States Donald Trump. On June 18, 2018, Trump announced plans to establish a space force, which would constitute a new, sixth branch of the United States military. [15] He expressed that "When it comes to defending America, it is not enough to merely have an American presence in space. We must have American dominance in space". [16] On December 20, 2019, the United States Space Force Act was signed into law with votes from both Democratic and Republican senators and House members. [17] As a result, the United States Space Force was founded.

This was seen by some as an American contestation of the Outer Space Treaty. Viktor Bondarev, chair of the Federation Council Committee on Defense and Security, [18] responded by saying that if the US were to go further and withdraw from the 1967 treaty, there would be "a tough response aimed at ensuring world security." [19] This is despite Russia itself having a space force branch in their military.

Private spaceflight and space tourism

The emergence of space tourism gives rise to a number of ethical concerns. Future frequent and large-scale landings on celestial bodies like the moon may damage or pollute landing sites and the areas around them. While scientific activity in space is benign, this cannot be guaranteed for actions by private people. If, how, by what criteria and by whom laws should be made to ensure that space tourism doesn't negatively impact other celestial bodies is a question of astroethics.

Terraforming other celestial bodies

Terraforming is a controversial astroethical matter. Proponents of terraforming, like Robert Zubrin, argue that humans, being the only technologically advanced and intelligent species on Earth, have a moral obligation to make other celestial bodies habitable for Earth's lifeforms to ensure their survival after the inevitable destruction of our planet. [20] The other, ecocentrist and biocentrist side of the debate criticizes this position as anthropocentrism and argues that other celestial bodies may already contain life which always has intrinsic value, no matter how advanced it may be. They oppose the interplanetary contamination and changes to the other world that would stem from terraforming, as they could endanger the indigenous life and alter its evolutionary trajectory.

Ethicality of SETI and METI

SETI and especially METI (Active SETI) are not uncontroversial and come with their own ethical implications. METI has been criticized as incompatible with the precautionary principle because it could reveal the location of our planet to potentially malevolent alien species. It therefore also potentially puts all of humanity at risk without the need for their individual prior consent, which violates the basic scientific rule of informed consent that all other science must abide by. [21] Reflecting on human history, some authors even fear the enslavement of humanity, should we be discovered by a more advanced species.[ citation needed ] Similarly, Stephen Hawking, one of the most prominent METI critics, warned of the potential consequences of a meeting with such a species, citing the near-extinction of Aboriginal Tasmanians as an equivalent case from human history. [22]

Concerns regarding the ethicality of METI might be a solution to the Fermi paradox. It is proposed that extraterrestrial life forms may abstain from attempting interstellar communication due to the potential danger it may pose to them, in line with the precautionary principle. [22]

Other astroethical considerations regarding METI are the lack of legally enforceable protocols about the steps that should be taken once extraterrestrial life is discovered, [23] the unpredictability of cultural consequences of that discovery (potential paradigm changes in policy, nations, religions, etc.) [24] , who will get to speak for humanity in case contact is made, how and by whom that person or group of people should be selected, and what the contents of the messages should be.

Value of extraterrestrial life

A further point of contention in the field is whether extraterrestrial life has intrinsic value and therefore if humans have a moral obligation to protect it. This becomes even more difficult when considering the wide span of possible extraterrestrial life forms and whether our treatment of them should differ based on criteria such as their advancement and intelligence. As former NASA chief historian Steven J. Dick put it, "Does Mars belong to the Martians, even if the Martians are only microbes?" [23] Dick argues that the first step in deciding how we should interact with life forms is to assess their moral status, which is complicated by our ambiguous relations with animals on earth, sheltering some species as pets while eating and exterminating others. [23] The principle of planetary protection provides that all life on other celestial bodies is worthy of protection from harm (also in the form of contamination) and therefore confers rights even on hypothetical extraterrestrial microbes, a situation that contrasts with our treatment of microbes and even most higher-developed organisms on Earth. This difference in treatment is hardly justifiable. Therefore, according to Dick, astroethical considerations will broaden our current ethical horizon: they will unveil such inconsistencies and double standards and move humanity from an anthropocentric ethic (ascribing intrinsic value only to rationing beings) to a cosmocentric or biocentric one that values all living things. In fact, Dick says that the finding of extraterrestrial life would "necessitate" a transition away from the anthropocentric approach because it would no longer be consistently applicable to a cosmos that harbors life beyond Earth. [23]

Space burial

The decision to include several grams of human cremains onboard Peregrine Lunar Lander flight 01 was criticized by the Navajo Nation, [25] whose president, Buu Nygren, argued that the Moon is sacred to the Navajo and other American Indian nations, [26] saying "As stewards of our culture and traditions, it is our responsibility to voice our grievances when actions are taken that could desecrate sacred spaces and disregard deeply held cultural beliefs". Celestis CEO Charles Chafer responded that "[the company] reject[s] the whole premise that this is somehow desecration" and that "nobody owns the Moon". [27] The launch was not successful in reaching the Moon.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Extraterrestrial life</span> Life that did not originate on Earth

Extraterrestrial life, alien life, or colloquially simply aliens is life which does not originate from Earth. No extraterrestrial life has yet been conclusively detected. Such life might range from simple forms such as prokaryotes to intelligent beings, possibly bringing forth civilizations that might be far more advanced than humanity. The Drake equation speculates about the existence of sapient life elsewhere in the universe. The science of extraterrestrial life is known as astrobiology.

The search for extraterrestrial intelligence (SETI) is a collective term for scientific searches for intelligent extraterrestrial life, for example, monitoring electromagnetic radiation for signs of transmissions from civilizations on other planets.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Space colonization</span> Concept of permanent human habitation outside of Earth

Space colonization is the use of outer space or celestial bodies other than Earth for permanent habitation or as extraterrestrial territory.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Terraforming</span> Hypothetical planetary engineering process

Terraforming or terraformation ("Earth-shaping") is the hypothetical process of deliberately modifying the atmosphere, temperature, surface topography or ecology of a planet, moon, or other body to be similar to the environment of Earth to make it habitable for humans to live on.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">SETI Institute</span> Not-for-profit research organization

The SETI Institute is a not-for-profit research organization incorporated in 1984 whose mission is to explore, understand, and explain the origin and nature of life in the universe, and to use this knowledge to inspire and guide present and future generations, sharing knowledge with the public, the press, and the government. SETI stands for the "search for extraterrestrial intelligence".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Space law</span> Area of national and international law governing activities in outer space

Space law is the body of law governing space-related activities, encompassing both international and domestic agreements, rules, and principles. Parameters of space law include space exploration, liability for damage, weapons use, rescue efforts, environmental preservation, information sharing, new technologies, and ethics. Other fields of law, such as administrative law, intellectual property law, arms control law, insurance law, environmental law, criminal law, and commercial law, are also integrated within the space law.

Xenoarchaeology, a branch of xenology dealing with extraterrestrial cultures, is a hypothetical form of archaeology that exists mainly in works of science fiction. The field is concerned with the study of the material remains to reconstruct and interpret past life-ways of alien civilizations. Xenoarchaeology is not currently practiced by mainstream archaeologists due to the current lack of any material for the discipline to study.

The zoo hypothesis speculates on the assumed behavior and existence of technologically advanced extraterrestrial life and the reasons they refrain from contacting Earth. It is one of many theoretical explanations for the Fermi paradox. The hypothesis states that alien life intentionally avoids communication with Earth to allow for natural evolution and sociocultural development, and avoiding interplanetary contamination, similar to people observing animals at a zoo. The hypothesis seeks to explain the apparent absence of extraterrestrial life despite its generally accepted plausibility and hence the reasonable expectation of its existence. A variant on the zoo hypothesis suggested by the former MIT Haystack Observatory scientist John Allen Ball is the "laboratory" hypothesis, in which humanity is being subjected to experiments, with Earth serving as a giant laboratory.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Planetary protection</span> Prevention of interplanetary biological contamination

Planetary protection is a guiding principle in the design of an interplanetary mission, aiming to prevent biological contamination of both the target celestial body and the Earth in the case of sample-return missions. Planetary protection reflects both the unknown nature of the space environment and the desire of the scientific community to preserve the pristine nature of celestial bodies until they can be studied in detail.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Extraterrestrial real estate</span> Ownership claims of property on other planets, moons, or parts of outer space

Extraterrestrial real estate refers to claims of land ownership on other planets, natural satellites, or parts of space by certain organizations or individuals. Previous claims are not recognized by any authority, and have no legal standing. Nevertheless, some private individuals and organizations have claimed ownership of celestial bodies, such as the Moon, and are actively involved in "selling" parts of them through certificates of ownership termed "Lunar deeds", "Martian deeds" or similar.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sample-return mission</span> Spacecraft mission

A sample-return mission is a spacecraft mission to collect and return samples from an extraterrestrial location to Earth for analysis. Sample-return missions may bring back merely atoms and molecules or a deposit of complex compounds such as loose material and rocks. These samples may be obtained in a number of ways, such as soil and rock excavation or a collector array used for capturing particles of solar wind or cometary debris. Nonetheless, concerns have been raised that the return of such samples to planet Earth may endanger Earth itself.

The ethics of terraforming has constituted a philosophical debate within biology, ecology, and environmental ethics as to whether terraforming other worlds is an ethical endeavor.

Active SETI is the attempt to send messages to intelligent extraterrestrial life. Active SETI messages are predominantly sent in the form of radio signals. Physical messages like that of the Pioneer plaque may also be considered an active SETI message. Active SETI is also known as METI.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Steven J. Dick</span> American astronomer

Steven J. Dick is an American astronomer, author, and historian of science most noted for his work in the field of astrobiology. Dick served as the chief historian for the National Aeronautics and Space Administration from 2003 to 2009 and as the Baruch S. Blumberg NASA/Library of Congress Chair in Astrobiology from 2013 to 2014. Before that, he was an astronomer and historian of science at the United States Naval Observatory in Washington, DC, from 1979 to 2003.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Human presence in space</span> Physical presence of human activity in outer space

Humans have been present in space either, in the common sense, through their direct presence and activity like human spaceflight, or through mediation of their presence and activity like with uncrewed spaceflight, making "telepresence" possible. Human presence in space, particularly through mediation, can take many physical forms from space debris, uncrewed spacecraft, artificial satellites, space observatories, crewed spacecraft, art in space, to human outposts in outer space such as space stations. While human presence in space, particularly its continuation and permanence can be a goal in itself, human presence can have a range of purposes and modes from space exploration, commercial use of space to space settlement or even colonization and militarisation of space. Human presence in space is realized and sustained through the advancement and application of space sciences, particularly astronautics in the form of spaceflight and space infrastructure.

Interplanetary contamination refers to biological contamination of a planetary body by a space probe or spacecraft, either deliberate or unintentional.

A post-detection policy (PDP), also known as a post-detection protocol, is a set of structured rules, standards, guidelines, or actions that governmental or other organizational entities plan to follow for the "detection, analysis, verification, announcement, and response to" confirmed signals from extraterrestrial civilizations. Though no PDPs have been formally and openly adopted by any governmental entity, there is significant work being done by scientists and nongovernmental organizations to develop cohesive plans of action to utilize in the event of detection. The most popular and well known of these is the "Declaration of Principles Concerning Activities Following the Detection of Extraterrestrial Intelligence", which was developed by the International Academy of Astronautics (IAA), with the support of the International Institute of Space Law. The theories of PDPs constitute a distinct area of research but draw heavily from the fields of SETI, METI, and CETI.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Technosignature</span> Property that provides scientific evidence for the presence of technology

Technosignature or technomarker is any measurable property or effect that provides scientific evidence of past or present technology. Technosignatures are analogous to biosignatures, which signal the presence of life, whether intelligent or not. Some authors prefer to exclude radio transmissions from the definition, but such restrictive usage is not widespread. Jill Tarter has proposed that the search for extraterrestrial intelligence (SETI) be renamed "the search for technosignatures". Various types of technosignatures, such as radiation leakage from megascale astroengineering installations such as Dyson spheres, the light from an extraterrestrial ecumenopolis, or Shkadov thrusters with the power to alter the orbits of stars around the Galactic Center, may be detectable with hypertelescopes. Some examples of technosignatures are described in Paul Davies's 2010 book The Eerie Silence, although the terms "technosignature" and "technomarker" do not appear in the book.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Extraterrestrial sample curation</span> Use and preservation of extraterrestrial samples

The curation of extraterrestrial samples (astromaterials) obtained by sample-return missions takes place at facilities specially designed to preserve both the sample integrity and protect the Earth. Astromaterials are classified as either non-restricted or restricted, depending on the nature of the Solar System body. Non-restricted samples include the Moon, asteroids, comets, solar particles and space dust. Restricted bodies include planets or moons suspected to have either past or present habitable environments to microscopic life, and therefore must be treated as extremely biohazardous.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Douglas Vakoch</span> American pro-contact astrobiologist (born 1961)

Douglas A. Vakoch is an American astrobiologist, search for extraterrestrial intelligence (SETI) researcher, psychologist, and president of METI International, a nonprofit research and educational organization devoted to transmitting intentional signals to extraterrestrial civilizations. Vakoch led METI's participation in Sónar Calling GJ 273b, which transmitted a series of interstellar messages to Luyten's Star, located 12.4 light years from Earth. Vakoch advocates ongoing transmission projects, arguing that this does not increase risks of an alien invasion as suggested by British cosmologist Stephen Hawking. He has participated in several SETI observation programs, and after sixteen years at the SETI Institute, where he was director of Interstellar Message Composition, Vakoch founded METI International. He has edited over a dozen books in SETI, astrobiology, the psychology of space exploration, and ecocriticism. He is general editor of two-book series in ecocriticism and in the intersection of space and society. Vakoch has appeared widely on television and radio as a commentator on SETI and astrobiology. He is an emeritus professor of clinical psychology at the California Institute of Integral Studies (CIIS).

References

  1. 1 2 Chon-Torres, Octavio A. (2017-04-10). "Astrobioethics". International Journal of Astrobiology. 17 (1): 51–56. doi: 10.1017/S1473550417000064 . ISSN   1473-5504. S2CID   232248384.
  2. ↑ Williamson, Mark (2003-02-01). "Space ethics and protection of the space environment". Space Policy. 19 (1): 47–52. doi:10.1016/S0265-9646(02)00064-4. ISSN   0265-9646 . Retrieved 2022-03-28.
  3. ↑ Dirks, Nicholas (2021-08-06). "The Ethics of Sending Humans to Mars". Scientific American. Retrieved 2022-10-15.
  4. ↑ Vidaurri, Monica (2019-10-24). "Will people go to space—and then colonize it?". Quartz. Retrieved 2022-03-28.
  5. ↑ Marshall, Alan (1993). "Ethics and the Extraterrestrial Environment". Journal of Applied Philosophy. 10 (2): 227–236. doi:10.1111/j.1468-5930.1993.tb00078.x. ISSN   0264-3758.
  6. ↑ Rummel, J.D.; Race, M.S.; Horneck, G. (November 2012). "Ethical Considerations for Planetary Protection in Space Exploration: A Workshop". Astrobiology. 12 (11): 1017–1023. doi:10.1089/ast.2012.0891. ISSN   1531-1074. PMC   3698687 . PMID   23095097.
  7. ↑ "Planets and Life: The Emerging Science of Astrobiology". Higher Education from Cambridge University Press. 2007-09-13. doi:10.1017/cbo9780511812958.026 . Retrieved 2021-12-20.
  8. 1 2 Keeter, Bill (2018-12-05). "Space Debris". NASA. Retrieved 2021-12-20.
  9. 1 2 "ARES | Orbital Debris Program Office Frequently Asked Questions". orbitaldebris.jsc.nasa.gov. Retrieved 2021-12-20.
  10. ↑ "How Does Space Debris Impact Earth's Environment And Atmosphere?". Science ABC. 2019-05-03. Retrieved 2023-05-23.
  11. ↑ "ARES | Orbital Debris Program Office | Frequently Asked Questions". orbitaldebris.jsc.nasa.gov. Retrieved 2023-12-06.
  12. ↑ "Who is Going to Take Out the Trash? - Addressing Space Debris under International Law". Public International Law & Policy Group. 2022-03-14. Retrieved 2023-05-23.
  13. ↑ "JAXA | Joint demonstration of J-SPARC initiated by ALE and JAXA, aimed at the commercialization of space debris prevention device". JAXA | Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency. Retrieved 2021-12-20.
  14. 1 2 Swayne, Matt; University, Pennsylvania State. "Researchers detail privacy-related legal, ethical challenges with satellite data". phys.org. Retrieved 2021-12-20.
  15. ↑ "Trump directs establishment of U.S. force to dominate space". Reuters. 2018-06-18. Retrieved 2023-05-23.
  16. ↑ "The Trump Administration Is Establishing the United States Space Command to Advance American Interests and Defend Our Nation – The White House". trumpwhitehouse.archives.gov. Retrieved 2023-05-23.
  17. ↑ Gould, Joe (2019-12-17). "Congress adopts defense bill that creates Space Force". Defense News. Retrieved 2023-05-23.
  18. ↑ "Committees". Federation Council of the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation. Retrieved 2023-05-23.
  19. ↑ "Russia is now talking tough with its Space Force response - We Are The Mighty". 2018-11-05. Archived from the original on 2018-11-05. Retrieved 2023-05-23.
  20. ↑ Robert Zubrin, The Case for Mars: The Plan to Settle the Red Planet and Why We Must , pp. 248-249, Simon & Schuster/Touchstone, 1996, ISBN   0-684-83550-9
  21. ↑ Traphagan, John W. (2019-01-02). "Active SETI and the Problem of Research Ethics". Theology and Science. 17 (1): 69–78. doi:10.1080/14746700.2019.1557806. ISSN   1474-6700. S2CID   172004039.
  22. 1 2 A. Vakoch, Douglas (2017-04-03). "Hawking's fear of an alien invasion may explain the Fermi Paradox". Theology and Science. 15 (2): 134–138. doi:10.1080/14746700.2017.1299380. ISSN   1474-6700. S2CID   219627161.
  23. 1 2 3 4 Dick, Steven J. "Astroethics and Cosmocentrism". Scientific American Blog Network. Retrieved 2023-05-23.
  24. ↑ Dick, Steven J. (2012-10-18). "Critical Issues in the History, Philosophy, and Sociology of Astrobiology". Astrobiology. 12 (10): 906–927. doi:10.1089/ast.2011.0786. ISSN   1531-1074. PMID   23078642.
  25. ↑ Wattles, Jackie (7 January 2024). "First US Moon mission in decades to launch with NASA science, human remains on board". CNN. Archived from the original on 7 January 2024. Retrieved 8 January 2024.
  26. ↑ Clark, Stephen (7 January 2024). "Navajo objection to flying human ashes to the Moon won't delay launch". Ars Technica. Archived from the original on 7 January 2024. Retrieved 8 January 2024.
  27. ↑ "Biden administration to consult with Navajo about human remains on the Moon". SpacePolicyOnline.com (Interview). Interviewed by Marcia Smith.

See also

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