Tamra Davis

Last updated
Tamra Davis
Born (1962-01-22) January 22, 1962 (age 62)
Studio City, California, U.S.
Alma mater Los Angeles City College
OccupationDirector
Years active1986–present
Spouse
​
​
(m. 1993;sep. 2016)​
Children2

Tamra Davis (born January 22, 1962) is an American film, television and music video director. [1]

Contents

Early life

Davis was born the second out of four children in Studio City, California. She was exposed to the media industry at an early age by her grandfather, a comedy writer, and her grandmother, who was an actress at Fox. Davis and her family constantly watched films and she aspired to become an actress. In the 11th grade, Davis dropped out of high school and met Egyptian film producer Ibrahim Moussa. Ibrahim took Davis to Italy for six months to work.

Returning to the U.S., Davis worked at an art gallery but soon quit to work at American Zoetrope in an apprentice position. The studio was struggling to complete Francis Ford Coppola's Waterloo, One from the Heart ; the hectic schedule allowed Davis to study Coppola's directing and the business. Coppola suggested to Davis that she go to school, at which point she then attended Los Angeles City College. [2]

Career

Davis first shot a film using a super 8 mm camera during her time at Los Angeles City College. [3]

As soon as she got out of school, Davis sent out a package of videos that she had done and was hired to do a video for the band Hüsker Dü. Davis states that music videos "played a huge role in developing my sensibility as a director. There's much less sexism in the video world and they're open to women. But more important, with video you're always being pushed to experiment and come up with something new." [2] During her career, Davis ended up directing over 155 music videos. [3] While working at MTV, Davis was encouraged to engage in her empathy towards multicultural and feminist issues. [3] Christina Lane stated in her book Feminist Hollywood: From Born in Flames to Point Break that as a person who was knowledgeable towards feminist politics, Tamra Davis wanted to empower young women to feel good about their sexuality. [3] Lane also mentioned that Davis used her platform to voice feminist ideas and empower girls. [3]

A writer at the Los Angeles Times reported, "Over the past seven years, Tamra Davis has made a name for herself directing cutting-edge videos for some of the thorniest acts in popular music. As director of choice for performers such as N.W.A, Sonic Youth, and Black Flag." [2]

Davis participated in The Polygram Video's program called No Alternative: A benefit for AIDS, education and relief which had a section in their program where multiple independent film directors created a series of short films. [3] In this program, Tamra Davis directed a short film called No Alternative Girls which discussed gender inequality. [3]

Tamra Davis also directed Guncrazy (1992), a film which starred actor Drew Barrymore. [3] [4] [5] This film was a remake of the 50s film Gun Crazy . Many books and articles have stated that her film had similar elements to Bonnie and Clyde. [3] [4] [5] Christina Lane acknowledged the mixed reviews for Davis' film. Lane wrote that some thought the film was too violent and others said the violence was necessary for the story she was telling. [3] When asked about the violence of the film Davis said she did it because she wanted a strong emotional reaction from the audience. [3] In the book, Davis expressed that she was not cautious when it came to her audiences’ emotions. [3] Davis stated, "I wanted to say something about how our society abuses people and yet gives them violent possibilities to turn that abuse back onto society." [3] Before the production of the film, Davis researched reactions teenagers had to sexual abuse. Davis said that she also looked at how a teenage girl's everyday life changed after the abuse. [3]

Davis is also known for directing films such as Jean-Michel Basquiat: The Radiant Child , CB4 , Billy Madison , and Half Baked and television shows such as My Name Is Earl and Everybody Hates Chris . She also directed the film Crossroads , starring Britney Spears. [6] [7]

For the film CB4 , Rupert Wainwright was originally asked to direct the film. [3] Davis was their second choice after Wainwright turned the project down. [3] According to Gwendolyn Audrey Foster, the comedy made fun of the seriousness and sexism of rap music videos while also taking a look at how Hollywood has misused African-American culture in the industry. [5] Foster also examined that Davis was not part of the writing of this film. However, it was noted that she did add her own knowledge of music videos, rap, and politics into the film. [5] Feminist Hollywood: From Born in Flames to Point Break discussed difficulties Davis had with the production of the film. [3] These difficulties included a limited time to film, the filming conditions due to the heat was difficult, and the script was changed often. [3] The book also mentioned that Tamra Davis speaks highly of her time working on CB4 . [3] Foster wrote in her book, Women Film Directors: An International Bio-Critical Dictionary, that this film proved Davis’ skills as a comedy director. [5]

According to an article in The New York Times , Tamra Davis had trouble finding a good location for the Western film she was originally supposed to direct, Bad Girls (1994). [8] Many sources state that the studio disagreed with the feminist approach Davis was taking for the film Bad Girls (1994). [3] [5] According to multiple sources, many producers were in disagreement with what Davis wanted within the film. [3] [5] Lane revealed that the budget given was not enough to provide Davis with the equipment she needed. [3] In the end, Davis was replaced with director Jonathan Kaplan. [3] [5] With the new director, the script was rewritten and the earlier footage was abandoned. [3] [5]

Currently, Davis has a cooking show showcasing vegetarian fare called Tamra Davis Cooking Show accessible on her website www.tamradaviscookingshow.com. She also wrote a cookbook titled Make Me Something Good to Eat. [6]

Personal life

Davis married Mike D of the Beastie Boys in 1993. [9] [10] They are now legally separated. [11] They have two children, Skyler and Davis.

Work

Books

Filmography

YearTitleRoleNotes
1992 Guncrazy directorfeature film [12] [13] [14] [15]
1993 CB4 directorfeature film [16] [17]
1994 Bad Girls*directorfeature film
*removed from production during filming; footage scrapped [5]
1994No Alternative Girlsdirectorindependent film [3]
1995 Billy Madison directorfeature film [18] [19]
1997 Best Men directorfeature film
1998 Half Baked directorfeature film [20] [21]
2000 Skipped Parts director; executive producerfeature film
2002 Crossroads directorfeature film [7] [22] [23]
2002Keep Your Eyes Opendirectordocumentary
2004 Method & Red directorTV series, 1 episode
2005 My Name Is Earl directorTV series, 1 episode
2006A Conversation with Basquiatdirectordocumentary
2006 Everybody Hates Chris directorTV series, 1 episode
2006 Love Monkey directorTV series, 2 episodes
2006 Men in Trees directorTV series, 1 episode
2007 Ugly Betty directorTV series, 1 episode
2007 Grey's Anatomy directorTV series, 1 episode
2008 The Ex List directorTV series, 1 episode
2010 Jean-Michel Basquiat: The Radiant Child director; producerdocumentary [24] [25] [26]
2010 Sons of Tucson directorTV series, 1 episode
2011 Single Ladies director; executive producerTV series, 21 episodes; 14 episodes
2013 The Punk Singer producerdocumentary
2013 Hit the Floor directorTV series, 5 episodes
2015 Odd Mom Out directorTV series, 2 episodes
2015 Crazy Ex-Girlfriend directorTV series, 1 episode
2015 Younger directorTV series, 4 episodes
2016 Still the King directorTV series, 3 episodes
2016 Mary + Jane directorTV series, 2 episodes
2016 Dirk Gently's Holistic Detective Agency directorTV series, 2 episodes
2017 Santa Clarita Diet directorTV series, 1 episode
2017 Star directorTV series, 2 episodes
2017 Daytime Divas directorTV series, 1 episode
2017 You're the Worst directorTV series, 3 episodes
2017 Kevin (Probably) Saves the World directorTV series, 1 episode
2018 Alone Together directorTV series, 5 episodes
2018 Empire directorTV series, 1 episode
2018 God Friended Me directorTV series, 1 episode
2019 Future Man directorTV series, 2 episodes
2019 Valley of the Boom directorTV series, 1 episode
2019 High School Musical: The Musical: The Series directorTV series, 3 episodes
2020 Miracle Workers directorTV series, 1 episode
2020 Dead to Me directorTV series, 2 episodes
2020 The Politician directorTV series, 1 episode
2020 Stargirl directorTV series, 1 episode
2020 P-Valley directorTV series, 1 episode [27]
2022 Good Sam directorTV series, 1 episode [28]
2022 13 directorfeature film [29] [30]
2023 The Afterparty directorTV series, 2 episodes

Music videos

YearTitleArtistNotes
1986"But Not Tonight" Depeche Mode
1986"Baby Ran" 54-40
1987"Shoplifters of the World Unite" The Smiths
1987"Sheila Take a Bow" The Smiths
1988"Anne's Song" Faith No More
1988"In Your Room" The Bangles
1988"Wild Thing" Tone Lōc
1989"Closer to Fine" Indigo Girls
1989"It's Funky Enough" [31] The D.O.C.
1989"The D.O.C. & The Doctor" The D.O.C.
1989"Cha Cha Cha" MC Lyte
1989"Bust a Move" Young MC
1989"Principal's Office" Young MC
1990"From a Distance" Bette Midler
1990"Kool Thing" Sonic Youth
1991"Call It What You Want" New Kids on the Block
1991"Dirty Boots" Sonic Youth
1992"Netty's Girl" Beastie Boys
1992"100%" Sonic Youth with Spike Jonze
1992"Daughters of the Kaos" Luscious Jackson
1993"I Got You Babe" Cher with Beavis and Butt-Head
1993"It's About Time" The Lemonheads
1994"Big Gay Heart" The Lemonheads
1994"Bull in the Heather" Sonic Youth
1994"Citysong" Luscious Jackson
1995"I Dig You" Boss Hog
1995"Pacer" The Amps
1995"Away with the Pixies" Ben Lee
1995"All Hail Me" Veruca Salt
1995"Kiss and Tell" G. Love & Special Sauce
1997"MMMBop" Hanson
1997"Drawer" Summercamp
1997"Where's the Love"Hanson
1998"Boy You Knock Me Out" Tatyana Ali
1999"Ladyfingers"Luscious Jackson
2001"Movies" Alien Ant Farm

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Britney Spears</span> American singer (born 1981)

Britney Jean Spears is an American singer. Often referred to as the "Princess of Pop", she is credited with influencing the revival of teen pop during the late 1990s and early 2000s. Spears has sold over 150 million records worldwide, making her one of the world's best-selling music artists. She has earned numerous awards and accolades, including a Grammy Award, 15 Guinness world records, six MTV Video Music Awards, seven Billboard Music Awards, the inaugural Radio Disney Icon Award, and a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. Her heavily choreographed videos earned her the Michael Jackson Video Vanguard Award.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Wade Robson</span> Australian dancer and choreographer

Wade Jeremy William Robson is an Australian dancer and choreographer. He began performing as a dancer at age five, and has directed music videos and world tours for pop acts such as NSYNC and Britney Spears. Robson was the host and executive producer of The Wade Robson Project, which aired on MTV in 2003. In 2007, he joined the Fox television dance series So You Think You Can Dance as a guest judge and choreographer. He won a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Choreography for the dance number "Ramalama " of So You Think You Can Dance.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Everytime</span> 2004 single by Britney Spears

"Everytime" is a song by American singer Britney Spears from her fourth studio album, In the Zone (2003). It was released as the third single from In the Zone on May 10, 2004, by Jive Records. After her relationship with Justin Timberlake ended in 2002, Spears became friends with her background singer Annet Artani. They started writing songs together at Spears' house in Los Angeles, and then traveled to Lombardy, Italy, where they collaborated on "Everytime". Musically, it is a piano-driven pop ballad, which lyrically plea for forgiveness for inadvertently hurting a former lover. Spears composed the music herself and wrote the lyrics with Artani about a romantic breakup.

<i>Crossroads</i> (2002 film) Film by Tamra Davis starring Britney Spears

Crossroads is a 2002 American teen comedy-drama road film directed by Tamra Davis, from a screenplay by Shonda Rhimes. It stars Britney Spears, Anson Mount, Zoe Saldana, Taryn Manning, Kim Cattrall, and Dan Aykroyd. Set in Georgia, it centers on three teenage girls on a cross-country road trip, as they find themselves and their friendship in the process.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Toxic (song)</span> 2004 single by Britney Spears

"Toxic" is a song by American singer Britney Spears, released as the second single from her fourth studio album, In the Zone (2003). It was written and produced by Bloodshy & Avant, with additional writing from Cathy Dennis and Henrik Jonback. It was initially offered to Kylie Minogue for her album Body Language, but she turned it down. A dance-pop and techno-pop song with elements of South Asian music, "Toxic" features varied instrumentation, such as drums, synthesizers and surf guitar. It is accompanied by breathy vocals and high-pitched Bollywood strings, sampled from Laxmikant–Pyarelal's "Tere Mere Beech Mein" (1981). Its lyrics draw an extended metaphor of a lover as a dangerous and addictive drug.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">My Prerogative</span> 1988 single by Bobby Brown

"My Prerogative" is a song by American singer Bobby Brown from his second studio album, Don't Be Cruel (1988). It was released on October 11, 1988, as the second single from the album. After recording sessions were completed, Brown and producer Gene Griffin traveled to New York City, since he felt something was "missing" from the record. "My Prerogative" was written by Brown as a response to the criticism he received for his firing from New Edition. He explained the song was about making decisions in one's life and not caring about other people's judgment. "My Prerogative" is often considered as new jack swing.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Jonathan Dayton and Valerie Faris</span> Team of American film and music video directors

Jonathan Dayton and Valerie Faris are a team of American film and music video directors. They started their career directing music videos for such artists as Red Hot Chili Peppers, R.E.M. and The Smashing Pumpkins. Together they directed the films Little Miss Sunshine (2006), Ruby Sparks (2012), and Battle of the Sexes (2017). They also directed the Netflix comedy series, Living with Yourself (2019), and the Hulu series Fleishman Is In Trouble (2022).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Britney Spears videography</span>

American entertainer Britney Spears has released 47 music videos and ten video albums. She has appeared in several films, television shows, and commercials. Spears made her acting debut at age 11 in the television show The All-New Mickey Mouse Club (1993–1994), playing various roles. She then made her feature film debut in Longshot (2001) as a cameo, portraying a flight attendant. In 2002, she starred as Lucy Wagner in Crossroads. The film grossed $61 million worldwide and earned her a nomination for Best Female Breakthrough Performance at the 2002 MTV Movie Awards. The same year, she gave her voice to the character Donner in the American dubbing of Robbie the Reindeer's television specials Hooves of Fire (1999) and Legend of the Lost Tribe (2002). In television series, she portrayed the guest roles of Amber-Louise and Abby in Will & Grace (2006) and How I Met Your Mother (2008), respectively. Spears also has released a few television documentaries, including Britney: For the Record (2008).

<i>Guncrazy</i> 1992 American film

Guncrazy is a 1992 American crime drama film inspired by the 1950 film Gun Crazy. It was directed by Tamra Davis in her feature film directorial debut, written by Matthew Bright and starring Drew Barrymore. Davis had read the script in 1985, but filming did not begin until November 1991. The film was shown at the Cannes Film Festival on May 14, 1992, and aired on Showtime beginning later that year. The film had a limited theatrical release in January 1993.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Womanizer (song)</span> 2008 single by Britney Spears

"Womanizer" is a song by American singer Britney Spears from her sixth studio album, Circus (2008). It was released on September 26, 2008, by Jive Records as the lead single of the album. Produced and written by The Outsyders, the song was re-recorded after a snippet was leaked onto the internet. "Womanizer" is an up-tempo electropop and dance-pop song. Described by Spears as a girl anthem, the song's lyrics recall a womanizing man, while the protagonist of the song makes clear she knows who he really is.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">If U Seek Amy</span> 2009 single by Britney Spears

"If U Seek Amy" is a song by American singer Britney Spears from her sixth studio album, Circus (2008). It was released on March 10, 2009, by Jive Records as the third single of the album, chosen by a poll on Spears's official website. "If U Seek Amy" was written and produced by Swedish producer Max Martin, who also wrote previous hits for her first three albums. In the song, Spears is looking for a woman named Amy in a club, and although it appears to be about sex, it is actually about how society perceives her life. Musically, "If U Seek Amy" makes use of instruments such as keyboards and timpani.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">2009 MTV Video Music Awards</span> American award ceremony

The 2009 MTV Video Music Awards, honoring the best music videos from the previous year between June 2008 to June 2009, were presented on September 13, 2009, at the Radio City Music Hall in New York City, and televised by MTV. The ceremony was hosted by Russell Brand.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">3 (Britney Spears song)</span> 2009 single by Britney Spears

"3" is a song by American singer Britney Spears from her second greatest hits album, The Singles Collection (2009). It was written and produced by Max Martin and Shellback, with additional writing from Tiffany Amber. The song was released on September 29, 2009, by Jive Records, as the only single from The Singles Collection. "3" is an uptempo electropop song that features a heavy bassline and synthesizers, and lyrics that talk about threesomes, while referencing American folk-singing trio Peter, Paul and Mary during the chorus as sexual slang.

Matthew William Dike was an American music executive, record producer, and DJ. He co-founded the hip-hop record label Delicious Vinyl in 1987. In the 1980s, Dike was artist Jean-Michel Basquiat's studio assistant and he worked on the Beastie Boys album Paul's Boutique (1989). He co-wrote and produced the song "Bust A Move" (1989) by Young MC, and co-produced "Smart Girls" (1991) by Brian Wilson.

<i>Jean-Michel Basquiat: The Radiant Child</i> 2010 American documentary by Tamra Davis

Jean-Michel Basquiat: The Radiant Child is a 2010 documentary film directed by Tamra Davis. It crosscuts excerpts from Davis' on-camera interview with the artist Jean-Michel Basquiat and anecdotes from his friends and associates. The film was shown at the Sundance Film Festival in 2010.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">2011 MTV Video Music Awards</span> Award ceremony

The 2011 MTV Video Music Awards took place on August 28, at Nokia Theatre in Los Angeles, honoring the best music videos from the previous year. On July 20, the nominees were announced. Katy Perry received the most nominations this year at ten, followed by Adele, and Kanye West, who were both tied at seven. A Britney Spears tribute was held, consisting of adult and children dancers alike, they wore costumes based on the music videos of Spears. Hamish Hamilton directed the show.

Becky Johnston is an American screenwriter.

<i>The Punk Singer</i> 2013 American film

The Punk Singer is a 2013 documentary film about feminist singer Kathleen Hanna who fronted the bands Bikini Kill and Le Tigre, and who was a central figure in the riot grrrl movement. Directed by filmmaker Sini Anderson and produced by Anderson and Tamra Davis, the film's title is taken from the Julie Ruin song "The Punk Singer", from Hanna's 1998 solo effort.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Britney Spears conservatorship case</span> Legal dispute regarding American singer

On February 1, 2008, American singer Britney Spears was involuntarily placed under a conservatorship by Judge Reva Goetz, with her father, James "Jamie" Spears, and attorney Andrew M. Wallet, as conservators. The conservatorship lasted until November 2021.

Lisa Rinzler is an American cinematographer who works on both feature films and documentaries. She has worked with Wim Wenders, Martin Scorsese, the Hughes Brothers and Tamra Davis.

References

  1. ↑ "Tamra Davis". TVGuide.com. Retrieved 2022-12-31.
  2. 1 2 3 McKenna, Kristen. "This Young MC Is a Movie Mixmaster Film: Tamra Davis combines her experience making cutting-edge videos with Hollywood's past to get the gritty 'Guncrazy.'" (Document). Tribune Publishing Company. ProQuest   281814491.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 Lane, Christina. Feminist Hollywood: From Born in Flames to Point Break.Contemporary Film and Television Series. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 2000
  4. 1 2 Levy, Emanuel. Cinema of Outsiders: The Rise of American Independent Film.New York: New York University Press, 1999
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Foster, Gwendolyn Audrey. Women Film Directors: An International Bio-Critical Dictionary. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1995.
  6. 1 2 "Tamra Davis Cooking Show". tamradaviscookingshow.com. 2010. Retrieved February 1, 2010.
  7. 1 2 Wagmeister, Elizabeth (2022-02-15). "Britney Spears' 'Crossroads' Turns 20: Director Tamra Davis Shares Memories on Working With Pop Star (EXCLUSIVE)". Variety. Retrieved 2022-12-31.
  8. ↑ Weinraub, Bernard (May 3, 1993). "Hollywood Recycles the Western to Offer New Heroes: Women". New York Times.
  9. ↑ "Mike D's Endless Summer: How Ex–Beastie Boy Found New Peace in Malibu". Rolling Stone. Retrieved 2018-04-01.
  10. ↑ Levy, Joe (1998-08-06). "The Beastie Boys Are Back in Town". Rolling Stone. Retrieved 2022-12-31.
  11. ↑ Marchese, David (2018-03-26). "Mike D on His New Life, NYC Versus L.A., and How Rap Has Changed". Vulture. Retrieved 2022-12-31.
  12. ↑ "'Guncrazy'". www.washingtonpost.com. Retrieved 2022-12-31.
  13. ↑ "MOVIE REVIEW : 'Guncrazy' Young Lovers on the Road to Armageddon". Los Angeles Times. 1993-01-20. Retrieved 2022-12-31.
  14. ↑ McCarthy, Todd (1992-05-19). "Guncrazy". Variety. Retrieved 2022-12-31.
  15. ↑ Travers, Peter (1993-01-20). "Guncrazy". Rolling Stone. Retrieved 2022-12-31.
  16. ↑ Wilmington, Michael (1993-03-12). "MOVIE REVIEW : 'CB4' Hips, Hops and Just Bounces Too Much". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 2022-12-31.
  17. ↑ Variety Staff (1993-01-01). "Cb4". Variety. Retrieved 2022-12-31.
  18. ↑ Rainer, Peter (1995-02-11). "MOVIE REVIEW : No New Lessons When 'Billy' Goes Back to Public School". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 2022-12-31.
  19. ↑ Fear, David (2015-04-21). "Why 'Billy Madison' Is Still Adam Sandler's Best Movie". Rolling Stone. Retrieved 2022-12-31.
  20. ↑ Archives, L. A. Times (1998-01-16). "'Half Baked' Review". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 2022-12-31.
  21. ↑ Gelder, Lawrence Van (1998-01-17). "FILM REVIEW; Marijuana Moments, Many of Them". The New York Times. ISSN   0362-4331 . Retrieved 2022-12-31.
  22. ↑ Bucksbaum, Sydney. "Justin Long shares sweet #TBT memories of working with Britney Spears on 'Crossroads'". EW.com. Retrieved 2022-12-31.
  23. ↑ Holden, Stephen (2002-02-15). "FILM REVIEW; A Britney Spears Vehicle That Bypasses the Bumps". The New York Times. ISSN   0362-4331 . Retrieved 2022-12-31.
  24. ↑ Archives, L. A. Times (2010-08-19). "Movies: 'Jean-Michel Basquiat: The Radiant Child'". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 2022-12-31.
  25. ↑ "Jean-Michel Basquiat: The Radiant Child Is Boom for Real". Vanity Fair. 2010-04-29. Retrieved 2022-12-31.
  26. ↑ AP; AP (2010-10-14). "Jean-Michel Basquiat: The Radiant Child — Film Review". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved 2022-12-31.
  27. ↑ Sepinwall, Alan (2020-07-09). "'P-Valley': Down and Out in the Mississippi Delta". Rolling Stone. Retrieved 2022-12-31.
  28. ↑ Cordero, Rosy (2021-12-12). "'Good Sam' Trailer: Sophia Bush & Jason Isaacs Are At Odds In CBS Medical Drama". Deadline. Retrieved 2022-12-31.
  29. ↑ Horst, Carole (2022-08-15). "How '13: The Musical' Mixes Broadway Energy With a TikTok Vibe". Variety. Retrieved 2022-12-31.
  30. ↑ Kroll, Justin (2022-04-27). "Netflix Announces Summer Slate Including Dates For Jamie Foxx's 'Day Shift' And Kevin Hart's 'Me Time'". Deadline. Retrieved 2022-12-31.
  31. ↑ "On the Job Training: Part Nine". Wax Poetics. 2012-06-22. Retrieved 2012-12-24.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.