Taraxacum officinale

Last updated

Taraxacum officinale
Taraxacum officinale - Kohler-s Medizinal-Pflanzen-135.jpg
Common dandelion [1]
Status TNC G5.svg
Secure  (NatureServe) [3]
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Asterids
Order: Asterales
Family: Asteraceae
Genus: Taraxacum
Species:
T. officinale
Binomial name
Taraxacum officinale
Synonyms [4] [5]
  • Crepis taraxacum(L.) Stokes
  • Leontodon taraxacum L.
  • Leontodon vulgareLam.
  • Taraxacum campylodesG.E.Haglund
  • Taraxacum dens-leonis Desf.
  • Taraxacum mexicanumDC.
  • Taraxacum retroflexum Lindl.
  • Taraxacum subspathulatumA.J. Richards
  • Taraxacum sylvanicumR. Doll
  • Taraxacum taraxacum(L.) H. Karst.
  • Taraxacum tenejapense A.J. Richards
  • Taraxacum vulgareSchrank

Taraxacum officinale, the dandelion or commondandelion, [6] is a herbaceous perennial flowering plant in the daisy family Asteraceae (syn. Compositae). The common dandelion is well known for its yellow flower heads that turn into round balls of many silver-tufted fruits that disperse in the wind. These balls are called "clocks" in both British and American English. [7] [8] [9] [10] The name "blowball" is also used. [11]

Contents

The common dandelion grows in temperate regions of the world in areas with moist soils. They are very hardy plants, able to grow in a variety of environments, and are tolerant of crowding, extremes of temperature, and low moisture. [12] As a result of this hardiness, in addition to its ability to rapidly propagate itself, the dandelion has become established over a wide range via human activity, originally being native to Eurasia, but can also be found across the Americas, southern Africa, India, Australia and New Zealand as a result of incidental or deliberate introductions.

It is most often considered a weed, especially in lawns and along roadsides, but the leaves, flowers, and roots are sometimes used in herbal medicine and as food.

Description

Dandelion clocks showing among the grass Nottuln, Bauerschaft Stevern -- 2020 -- 7049.jpg
Dandelion clocks showing among the grass

Taraxacum officinale grows from (generally unbranched) taproots and produces several hollow, leafless flower stems [13] : 470  that are typically 5–40 centimetres (2–15+3⁄4 inches) tall, but sometimes up to 70 cm (28 in) tall. The stems can be tinted purplish, they are upright or lax, and produce flower heads that are held as tall or taller than the foliage. The foliage may be upright-growing or horizontally spreading; the leaves have petioles that are either unwinged or narrowly winged. The stems can be glabrous or sparsely covered with short hairs. Plants have milky latex and the leaves are all basal; each flowering stem lacks bracts and has one single flower head. The yellow flower heads lack receptacle bracts and all the flowers, which are called florets, are ligulate and bisexual. In many lineages, fruits are mostly produced by apomixis, [14] notwithstanding the flowers are visited by many types of insects. [15]

The leaves are 5–45 cm (2–17+3⁄4 in) long and 1–10 cm (1⁄2–4 in) wide, and are oblanceolate, oblong, or obovate in shape, with the bases gradually narrowing to the petiole. The leaf margins are typically shallowly lobed to deeply lobed and often lacerate or toothed with sharp or dull teeth. [14]

The calyculi (the cuplike bracts that hold the florets) are composed of 12 to 18 segments: each segment is reflexed and sometimes glaucous. The lanceolate shaped bractlets are in two series, with the apices acuminate in shape. The 14–25 millimetres (1⁄2–1 in) wide involucres are green to dark green or brownish-green, with the tips dark gray or purplish. The florets number 40 to over 100 per head, having corollas that are yellow or orange-yellow in color.

The fruits, called cypselae, [16] range in color from olive-green or olive-brown to straw-colored to grayish, they are oblanceoloid in shape and 2–3 mm (1⁄16–1⁄8 in) long with slender beaks. The fruits have 4 to 12 ribs that have sharp edges. The silky pappi, which form the parachutes, are white to silver-white in color and around 6 mm wide. Plants typically have 24 or 40 pairs of chromosomes, while some have 16 or 32 pairs. [17]

Chemistry

Taraxalisin
Identifiers
EC no. ?
CAS no. 217442-60-9

Taraxalisin is a serine proteinase found in the latex of dandelion roots. [18] Rudenskaya et al. (1998) found that taraxalisin hydrolyzes a chromogenic peptide substrate Glp-Ala-Ala-Leu-pNA optimally at pH 8.0. [19] Maximal activity of the proteinase in the roots is attained in April, at the beginning of plant development after the winter period. [19]

Taxonomy

Dandelion flower head (2008-05-04 pic02).jpg
Dandelion12.jpg
Dandelion flower (left) and ripe fruits

Carl Linnaeus named the species Leontodon taraxacum in 1753. The current genus name Taraxacum derives possibly from the Arabic Tharakhchakon, [14] or from the Greek Tarraxos. [20] The specific name officinalis refers to its value as a medicinal herb, and is derived from the word opificina, later officina, meaning a workshop or pharmacy. [21]

The taxonomy of the genus Taraxacum is complicated by apomictic and polyploid lineages, [22] [23] and the taxonomy and nomenclatural situation of T. officinale is not yet fully resolved. [17] The taxonomy of this genus has been complicated by the recognition of numerous species, [24] subspecies and microspecies. For example, Rothmaler's flora of Germany recognizes roughly 70 microspecies. [25]

T. officinale has a fossil record that goes back to glacial and interglacial times in Europe. [26]

North American dandelions

Saint-Prosper-de-Champlain, Quebec, Canada Taraxacum officinale 039.jpg
Saint-Prosper-de-Champlain, Quebec, Canada

The plants introduced to North America, originally as a food crop, are triploids that mainly reproduce by obligate gametophytic apomixis [17] [27] Though sexual dandelion plants are known in North America, almost all are clones that produce genetically identical seeds through apomixis. [28] Some authorities recognize three subspecies of Taraxacum officinale, including: [29] [30]

Two of them have been introduced and established in Alaska and the third (subsp. ceratophorum) is native there. [34]

European dandelions

Taraxacum officinale L. (dandelion) is a vigorous weed in Europe with diploid sexual populations in the southern regions and partially overlapping populations of diploid sexuals and triploid or tetraploid apomicts in the central and northern regions.

Dandelion in Tosko Celo, Slovenia Taraxacum officinale PID1200-1.jpg
Dandelion in Toško Čelo, Slovenia

These European dandelions can be divided into two groups. The first group reproduces sexually, as do most seed plants. This group consists of dandelions that have a diploid set of chromosomes, and are sexually self-incompatible. Sexual reproduction involves a reduction of the somatic chromosome number by meiosis followed by a restoration of the somatic chromosome number by fertilization. Diploid dandelions have eight pairs of chromosomes, and meiosis is regular with normal pairing of homologous chromosomes at the metaphase I stage of meiosis. [35]

The second group consists of polyploid (mostly triploid) apomicts, meaning that both a viable embryo as well as a functional endosperm is formed without prior fertilization. In contrast to the sexual diploids, the pairing of chromosomes at metaphase I in triploid apomicts is strongly reduced. However pairing is still sufficient to allow some recombination between homologous chromosomes. [35]

Etymology

Taraxacum is derived from the Arabic word tarakhshagog (or tarakhshaqūn) for a bitter herb. [36] It may be related to the Greek word ταρασσω (tarasso) meaning to disturb. [36] [ verification needed ]

The Latin specific epithet officinale refers to the Latin word for 'medicinal' or 'of the apothecaries'. [37]

T. officinale has many English common names (some of which are no longer in use), including blowball, lion's-tooth, cankerwort, milk-witch, yellow-gowan, Irish daisy, monks-head, priest's-crown and puff-ball; [38] other common names include, faceclock, pee-a-bed, wet-a-bed, [39] swine's snout, [40] white endive, and wild endive. [41]

The common name dandelion comes from the French dent de lion, or "lion's tooth", in reference to the plant's jagged-edged leaves. [20] "Pee-a-bed" and "wet-a-bed" reflect the modern French term for the plant, pissenlit. This name and all those that imply ramped-up urine production refer to T. officinale's well-known diuretic properties. [42]

Distribution and habitat

Dandelions provide both pollen and nectar for the insects Bombus ruderarius - Taraxacum officinale - Keila.jpg
Dandelions provide both pollen and nectar for the insects

Taraxacum officinale is native to Europe and Asia, [43] and was originally imported to America as a food crop. [44] It is now naturalized throughout North America, southern Africa, South America, New Zealand, Australia, and India. It occurs in all 50 states of the US and most Canadian provinces. [34]

The plant grows in temperate regions of the world in lawns, on roadsides, disturbed banks, shores of waterways, and other areas with moist soils.

The plant is coveted by collectors in regions where the plant is trickier to grow such as the tropics, where people would often resort to smuggling seeds from overseas. [45]

Conservation

Taraxacum officinale was evaluated in 2013 by the IUCN as "Least Concern" due to a large and stable population. [2] It was similarly evaluated by NatureServe in 2016 as "Globally Secure", G5. [3]

Ecology

It is considered a noxious weed in some jurisdictions, [46] and is considered to be a nuisance in residential and recreational lawns in North America. [47] It is also an important weed in agriculture and causes significant economic damage because of its infestation in many crops worldwide. [46]

T. officinale can serve as an indicator plant for soil potassium and calcium, as the plant favours soils with relatively low concentrations of calcium, but favours soils with relatively high concentrations of potassium. [48]

A field of dandelions in Weiler, Austria WeilerVlbg7.jpg
A field of dandelions in Weiler, Austria

The dandelion is a common colonizer of disturbed habitats, both from wind blown seeds and seed germination from the seed bank. [49] The seeds remain viable in the seed bank for many years, with one study showing germination after nine years. This species is a somewhat prolific seed producer, with 54 to 172 seeds produced per head, and a single plant can produce more than 5,000 seeds a year. It is estimated that more than 97,000,000 seeds/hectare could be produced yearly by a dense stand of dandelions. [50] When released, the seeds can be spread by the wind up to several hundred meters from their source. The seeds are also a common contaminant in crop and forage seeds. The plants are adaptable to most soils and the seeds are not dependent on cold temperatures before they will germinate but they need to be within the top 2.5 cm (1 in) of soil. [34] Dandelions can also regenerate themselves from fragments of taproot. [51]

T. officinale is food for the caterpillars of several Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths), such as the tortrix moth Celypha rufana . See also List of Lepidoptera that feed on dandelions.

Even though dandelion pollen is of poor nutritional quality for honey bees, they readily consume it, and it can be an important source of nutritional diversity in heavily managed monocultures such as that of blueberries. [52] [53] Honey bees have not been shown to lower their pollination activity on nearby fruit crops when foraging on dandelions. [54]

While not in bloom, this species is sometimes confused with others, such as Chondrilla juncea , that have similar basal rosettes of foliage. [55] Another plant, sometimes referred to as fall dandelion, is very similar to dandelion, but produces "yellow fields" later. Its blooms resemble some of the species of Sonchus , but are larger. [56]

Dandelion thrives in conditions of elevated carbon dioxide, growing to a higher biomass and producing a larger number of viable seeds. Therefore, it is anticipated that dandelion will become more competitive and widespread as atmospheric carbon dioxide levels increase. [28]

Uses

Dandelion greens, raw
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy 188 kJ (45 kcal)
9.2 g
Sugars 0.71 g
Dietary fiber 3.5 g
Fat
0.7 g
2.7 g
Vitamins Quantity
%DV†
Vitamin A equiv.
64%
508 μg
54%
5854 μg
13610 μg
Thiamine (B1)
17%
0.19 mg
Riboflavin (B2)
22%
0.26 mg
Niacin (B3)
5%
0.806 mg
Pantothenic acid (B5)
2%
0.084 mg
Vitamin B6
19%
0.251 mg
Folate (B9)
7%
27 μg
Choline
7%
35.3 mg
Vitamin C
42%
35 mg
Vitamin E
23%
3.44 mg
Vitamin K
741%
778.4 μg
Minerals Quantity
%DV†
Calcium
19%
187 mg
Iron
24%
3.1 mg
Magnesium
10%
36 mg
Manganese
16%
0.342 mg
Phosphorus
9%
66 mg
Potassium
8%
397 mg
Sodium
5%
76 mg
Zinc
4%
0.41 mg
Other constituentsQuantity
Water85.6 g
Link to USDA Database entry
†Percentages are roughly approximated using US recommendations for adults.
Source: USDA FoodData Central

The plant has several culinary uses: the flowers are used to make dandelion wine, [57] the greens are used in salads, the roots have been used to make a coffee substitute (when baked and ground into powder) and the plant was used by Native Americans as a food and medicine. [58]

Culinary

Plate of sauteed dandelion greens, with Wehani rice Plate of Wehani rice with sauteed dandelion greens.jpg
Plate of sauteed dandelion greens, with Wehani rice

Dandelions are harvested from the wild or grown on a small scale as a leaf vegetable. The leaves (called dandelion greens) can be eaten cooked or raw in various forms, such as in soup or salad. They are probably closest in character to mustard greens. Usually the young leaves and unopened buds are eaten raw in salads, while older leaves are cooked. Raw leaves have a slightly bitter taste. Dandelion salad is often accompanied with hard-boiled eggs. The leaves are high in vitamins A and C, as well as iron, phosphorus, and potassium. [59]

Dandelion flowers can be used to make dandelion wine, for which there are many recipes. [60] Most of these are more accurately described as "dandelion-flavored wine," as some other sort of fermented juice or extract serves as the main ingredient. [61] It has also been used in a saison ale called Pissenlit (the French word for dandelion, literally meaning "wet the bed") made by Brasserie Fantôme in Belgium. Dandelion and burdock is a soft drink that has long been popular in the United Kingdom.

Another recipe using the plant is dandelion flower jam. In Silesia and other parts of Poland and the world, dandelion flowers are used to make a honey substitute syrup with added lemon (so-called May-honey). Ground roasted dandelion root can be used as a non-caffeinated coffee substitute. [62]

Diuretic

T. officinale's diuretic properties - believed to be a result of the plant’s high potassium content [63] - have been well described, with the leaves of this plant having been used for this purpose in traditional Chinese medicine for approximately 2,000 years, with other regions of the world using the plant in the same way; in French, a common name for T. officinale is pissenlit, 'a colorful description of its diuretic activity.' A study conducted in 2009 noted 'promising' results regarding these diuretic properties, but that further studies would need to be conducted into the plant's efficacy. [64]

Herbal medicine

Dandelion has been used in traditional medicine in Europe, North America, and China. [65]

Research

Since asexually-reproducing dandelions produce genetically identical offspring, they are often useful as subjects for scientific research. For example, dandelions are used in studies where genetic differences between subjects need to be minimized. [66]

Education

Because of its worldwide distribution, familiarity, and presence in a wide variety of folkloric traditions, the dandelion has been highlighted as a valuable tool for educators seeking to help children of varying cultural and ethnic backgrounds connect to science through ethnobotany. [67]

Other

Yellow dye colors can be obtained from the flowers but little color can be obtained from the roots of the plant. [68] The latex can be used as a kind of glue. [69]

In culture

Cultures worldwide tell stories about the dandelion and have culinary and medicinal uses for it. A Native American folktale tells the story of a golden haired girl who attracted the fancy of the South Wind. The South Wind was too lazy to pursue her, until one day he realized she had grown old and her hair had turned white. Supposedly, when the South Wind sighs over the loss of his chance to pursue the golden-haired girl, his breath sends the white-haired dandelion seeds scattering to propagate more golden-haired daughters. [67]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Asteraceae</span> Large family of flowering plants

The family Asteraceae, with the original name Compositae, consists of over 32,000 known species of flowering plants in over 1,900 genera within the order Asterales. Commonly referred to as the aster, daisy, composite, or sunflower family, Compositae were first described in the year 1740. The number of species in Asteraceae is rivaled only by the Orchidaceae, and which is the larger family is unclear as the quantity of extant species in each family is unknown.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Asexual reproduction</span> Reproduction without a sexual process

Asexual reproduction is a type of reproduction that does not involve the fusion of gametes or change in the number of chromosomes. The offspring that arise by asexual reproduction from either unicellular or multicellular organisms inherit the full set of genes of their single parent and thus the newly created individual is genetically and physically similar to the parent or an exact clone of the parent. Asexual reproduction is the primary form of reproduction for single-celled organisms such as archaea and bacteria. Many eukaryotic organisms including plants, animals, and fungi can also reproduce asexually. In vertebrates, the most common form of asexual reproduction is parthenogenesis, which is typically used as an alternative to sexual reproduction in times when reproductive opportunities are limited. Komodo dragons and some monitor lizards can reproduce asexually.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ploidy</span> Number of sets of chromosomes in a cell

Ploidy is the number of complete sets of chromosomes in a cell, and hence the number of possible alleles for autosomal and pseudoautosomal genes. Sets of chromosomes refer to the number of maternal and paternal chromosome copies, respectively, in each homologous chromosome pair, which chromosomes naturally exist as. Somatic cells, tissues, and individual organisms can be described according to the number of sets of chromosomes present : monoploid, diploid, triploid, tetraploid, pentaploid, hexaploid, heptaploid or septaploid, etc. The generic term polyploid is often used to describe cells with three or more chromosome sets.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Polyploidy</span> Condition where cells of an organism have more than two paired sets of chromosomes

Polyploidy is a condition in which the cells of an organism have more than one pair of (homologous) chromosomes. Most species whose cells have nuclei (eukaryotes) are diploid, meaning they have two complete sets of chromosomes, one from each of two parents; each set contains the same number of chromosomes, and the chromosomes are joined in pairs of homologous chromosomes. However, some organisms are polyploid. Polyploidy is especially common in plants. Most eukaryotes have diploid somatic cells, but produce haploid gametes by meiosis. A monoploid has only one set of chromosomes, and the term is usually only applied to cells or organisms that are normally diploid. Males of bees and other Hymenoptera, for example, are monoploid. Unlike animals, plants and multicellular algae have life cycles with two alternating multicellular generations. The gametophyte generation is haploid, and produces gametes by mitosis; the sporophyte generation is diploid and produces spores by meiosis.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Apomixis</span> Replacement of the normal sexual reproduction by asexual reproduction, without fertilization

In botany, apomixis is asexual development of seed or embryo without fertilization. However, other definitions include replacement of the seed by a plantlet or replacement of the flower by bulbils.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Jasmine</span> Genus of flowering plant in the olive family Oleaceae

Jasmine is a genus of shrubs and vines in the olive family of Oleaceae. It contains around 200 species native to tropical and warm temperate regions of Eurasia, Africa, and Oceania. Jasmines are widely cultivated for the characteristic fragrance of their flowers. Additionally a number of unrelated species of plants or flowers contain the word "jasmine" in their common names.

<i>Hypericum perforatum</i> Flowering plant in the St Johns wort family Hypericaceae

Hypericum perforatum, commonly known as St John's wort, is a flowering plant in the family Hypericaceae. It is a perennial plant that grows up to one meter tall, with many yellow flowers that have clearly visible black glands around their edges, long stamens, and three pistils. Probably a hybrid between the closely related H. attenuatum and H. maculatum that originated in Siberia, the species is now found worldwide. It is native to temperate regions across Eurasia and North Africa, and has been introduced to East Asia, Australia, New Zealand, and parts of North and South America. In many areas where it is not native, H. perforatum is considered a noxious weed. It densely covers open areas to the exclusion of native plants, and is poor grazing material. As such, methods for biocontrol have been introduced in an attempt to slow or reverse the spread of the species.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vegetative reproduction</span> Asexual method of reproduction in plants

Vegetative reproduction is any form of asexual reproduction occurring in plants in which a new plant grows from a fragment or cutting of the parent plant or specialized reproductive structures, which are sometimes called vegetative propagules.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Endosperm</span> Starchy tissue inside cereals and alike

The endosperm is a tissue produced inside the seeds of most of the flowering plants following double fertilization. It is triploid in most species, which may be auxin-driven. It surrounds the embryo and provides nutrition in the form of starch, though it can also contain oils and protein. This can make endosperm a source of nutrition in animal diet. For example, wheat endosperm is ground into flour for bread, while barley endosperm is the main source of sugars for beer production. Other examples of endosperm that forms the bulk of the edible portion are coconut "meat" and coconut "water", and corn. Some plants, such as orchids, lack endosperm in their seeds.

<i>Crocus sativus</i> Species of plant, saffron crocus

Crocus sativus, commonly known as saffron crocus or autumn crocus, is a species of flowering plant in the iris family Iridaceae. A cormous autumn-flowering cultivated perennial, unknown in the wild, it is best known for the culinary use of its floral stigmas as the spice saffron. Human cultivation of saffron crocus and the trade and use of saffron have endured for more than 3,500 years and span different cultures, continents, and civilizations.

<i>Crepis</i> Genus of flowering plants in the family Asteraceae

Crepis, commonly known in some parts of the world as hawksbeard or hawk's-beard, is a genus of annual and perennial flowering plants of the family Asteraceae superficially resembling the dandelion, the most conspicuous difference being that Crepis usually has branching scapes with multiple heads. The genus name Crepis derives from the Greek krepis, meaning "slipper" or "sandal", possibly in reference to the shape of the fruit.

<i>Linaria vulgaris</i> Species of plant

Linaria vulgaris, the common toadflax, yellow toadflax or butter-and-eggs, is a species of flowering plant in the family Plantaginaceae, native to Europe, Siberia and Central Asia. It has also been introduced and is now common in North America.

Plant reproduction is the production of new offspring in plants, which can be accomplished by sexual or asexual reproduction. Sexual reproduction produces offspring by the fusion of gametes, resulting in offspring genetically different from either parent. Asexual reproduction produces new individuals without the fusion of gametes, resulting in clonal plants that are genetically identical to the parent plant and each other, unless mutations occur.

<i>Sisymbrium irio</i> Species of flowering plant

Sisymbrium irio, London rocket, is a flowering plant in the cabbage family which is native to the Middle East, north Africa and southern Europe, and which has spread widely around the world as an invasive plant of dry, disturbed land in towns, deserts and farmland. It has traditionally been used as a medicinal herb for a variety of ailments. Its English common name originated when it flourished after the Great Fire of London in 1666, although it is not native to Britain and it does not tend to persist there.

<i>Taraxacum californicum</i> Species of flowering plant

Taraxacum californicum, also known as the California dandelion, is an endangered species of dandelion endemic to the San Bernardino Mountains of California. It grows in mountain meadows.

<i>Taraxacum</i> Genus of flowering plants in the daisy family Asteraceae

Taraxacum is a large genus of flowering plants in the family Asteraceae, which consists of species commonly known as dandelions. The scientific and hobby study of the genus is known as taraxacology. The genus is native to Eurasia and North America, but the two most commonplace species worldwide, T. officinale and T. erythrospermum, were introduced from Europe into North America, where they now propagate as wildflowers. Both species are edible in their entirety. The common name dandelion is also given to specific members of the genus.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dandelion coffee</span> Tisane made from dandelion root

Dandelion 'coffee' is a tisane made from the root of the dandelion plant. The roasted dandelion root pieces and the beverage have some resemblance to coffee in appearance and taste, and it is thus commonly considered a coffee substitute. Dandelion root is used for both medicinal and culinary purposes and is thought to be a detoxifying herb.

Pseudogamy refers to aspects of reproduction. It has different meanings in zoology and in botany.

<i>Taraxacum kok-saghyz</i> Species of flowering plant

Taraxacum kok-saghyz, often abbreviated as TKS and commonly referred to as the Kazakh dandelion, rubber root, or Russian dandelion, is a species of dandelion native to Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Uzbekistan, notable for its production of high-quality rubber. T. kok-saghyz was discovered in Kazakhstan in 1932 by Soviet scientists seeking a domestic source of rubber.

<i>Taraxacum ceratophorum</i> Species of flowering plant

Taraxacum ceratophorum, also known as the horned dandelion, is a species of flowering plant within the genus Taraxacum and family Asteraceae. This alpine species has a preference for mountainous habitat, where it can be found growing at elevations up to 3000 meters above sea level. It is native to a large portion of the Northern Hemisphere, inhabiting various countries within Asia, Europe and North America.

References

  1. ↑ 1897 illustration from Franz Eugen Köhler, Köhler's Medizinal-Pflanzen
  2. 1 2 "IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Taraxacum officinale". 5 April 2013.
  3. 1 2 NatureServe (2023). "Taraxacum officinale". NatureServe Explorer. Arlington, Virginia. Archived from the original on 28 May 2023. Retrieved 28 October 2023.
  4. ↑ "Tropicos - Name - !Taraxacum officinale F.H. Wigg". tropicos.org.
  5. ↑ "Taraxacum campylodes G.E.Haglund — The Plant List". theplantlist.org.
  6. ↑ USDA, NRCS (n.d.). "Taraxacum officinale". The PLANTS Database (plants.usda.gov). Greensboro, North Carolina: National Plant Data Team. Retrieved 8 December 2015.
  7. ↑ "Definition of "blowball" - Collins English Dictionary". collinsdictionary.com.
  8. ↑ "blowball: meaning and definitions". infoplease.com.
  9. ↑ "dandelion clock - Definition from Longman English Dictionary Online". Ldoceonline.com. Retrieved 2010-07-03.
  10. ↑ "Clock dictionary definition - clock defined". yourdictionary.com.
  11. ↑ "blowball". TheFreeDictionary.com.
  12. ↑ "Dandelion, Taraxacum officinale". Wisconsin Horticulture. Retrieved 2023-10-02.
  13. ↑ Rose, Francis (2006). The wild flower key. London: Penguim BooksLtd. ISBN   978-0-7232-5175-0.
  14. 1 2 3 Morley, T. I. (1969). "Spring Flora of Minnesota". 1974 Reprint with Minor Corrections: 255.
  15. ↑ Van Der Kooi, C. J.; Pen, I.; Staal, M.; Stavenga, D. G.; Elzenga, J. T. M. (2015). "Competition for pollinators and intra-communal spectral dissimilarity of flowers". Plant Biology. 18 (1): 56–62. doi:10.1111/plb.12328. PMID   25754608.
  16. ↑ "Cypsela". Steere Herbarium, New York Botanical Garden. Retrieved 18 February 2020.
  17. 1 2 3 "Taraxacum officinale in Flora of North America @". Efloras.org. Retrieved 2011-10-23.
  18. ↑ Bogacheva, A. M.; Rudenskaya, G. N.; Preusser, A; Tchikileva, I. O.; Dunaevsky, Y. E.; Golovkin, B. N.; Stepanov, V. M. (1999). "A new subtilisin-like proteinase from roots of the dandelion Taraxacum officinale Webb S. L.". Biochemistry. Biokhimiia. 64 (9): 1030–7. PMID   10521720.
  19. 1 2 Rudenskaya, G. N.; Bogacheva, A. M.; Preusser, A.; Kuznetsova, A. V.; Dunaevsky YaE, null; Golovkin, B. N.; Stepanov, V. M. (1998-10-23). "Taraxalisin -- a serine proteinase from dandelion Taraxacum officinale Webb s.l". FEBS Letters. 437 (3): 237–240. doi: 10.1016/s0014-5793(98)01243-5 . ISSN   0014-5793. PMID   9824298. S2CID   43872064.
  20. 1 2 Kowalchik, Claire; Hylton, William H.; Carr, Anna (1987). Rodale's illustrated encyclopedia of herbs. Emmaus, Pa.: Rodale Press. p.  141. ISBN   978-0-87857-699-9.
  21. ↑ Stearn, W.T. (1992). Botanical Latin: History, grammar, syntax, terminology and vocabulary, Fourth edition. David and Charles.
  22. ↑ Wittzell, Hakan (1999). "Chloroplast DNA variation and reticulate evolution in sexual and apomictic sections of dandelions". Molecular Ecology. 8 (12): 2023–35. doi:10.1046/j.1365-294x.1999.00807.x. PMID   10632854. S2CID   25180463.
  23. ↑ Dijk, Peter J. van (2003). "Ecological and evolutionary opportunities of apomixis: insights from Taraxacum and Chondrilla". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B . 358 (1434): 1113–21. doi:10.1098/rstb.2003.1302. PMC   1693208 . PMID   12831477.
  24. ↑ Thomas Gaskell Tutin (1976). Flora Europaea: Plantaginaceae to Compositae (and Rubiaceae). Cambridge University Press. pp. 332–. ISBN   978-0-521-08717-9 . Retrieved 29 October 2010.
  25. ↑ Rothmaler, Werner (1966). Exkursionsflora: Kritischer Ergänzungsband Gefäßpflanzen. p. 347.
  26. ↑ "Taraxacum officinale complex (dandelion)". Cabi.org. Retrieved 2019-06-17.
  27. ↑ Lyman JC, Ellstrand NC (1984). "Clonal diversity in Taraxacum officinale (Compositae), an apomict". Heredity. 53 (1): 1–10. doi: 10.1038/hdy.1984.58 .
  28. 1 2 McPeek, Tamara M.; Wang, Xianzhong (2007). "Reproduction of Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale) in a Higher CO2 Environment". Weed Science. 55 (4): 334–340. doi:10.1614/WS-07-021. S2CID   86250272.
  29. ↑ "ITIS Standard Report Page: Taraxacum officinale". Itis.gov. 2010-05-13. Retrieved 2011-10-23.
  30. ↑ Robert F. Barnes; C. Jerry Nelson; Kenneth J. Moore; Michael Collins (19 January 2007). Forages: The science of grassland agriculture. Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 11–. ISBN   978-0-8138-0232-9 . Retrieved 29 October 2010.
  31. ↑ "PLANTS Profile for Taraxacum officinale ssp. ceratophorum (common dandelion) | USDA PLANTS". Plants.usda.gov. Retrieved 2011-10-23.
  32. ↑ "Taraxacum ceratophorum". Calflora. Retrieved 2011-10-23.
  33. ↑ "Taraxacum ceratophorum in Flora of North America @". Efloras.org. Retrieved 2011-10-23.
  34. 1 2 3 "What is AKEPIC? | Alaska Natural Heritage Program" (PDF). Akweeds.uaa.alaska.edu. 2010-11-15. Retrieved 2011-10-23.
  35. 1 2 van Baarlen P, van Dijk PJ, Hoekstra RF, de Jong JH (October 2000). "Meiotic recombination in sexual diploid and apomictic triploid dandelions (Taraxacum officinale L.)". Genome. 43 (5): 827–35. doi:10.1139/g00-047. PMID   11081973.
  36. 1 2 Gledhill, David (2008). The Names of Plants. Cambridge University Press. ISBN   9780521866453 (hardback), ISBN   9780521685535 (paperback). pp 279, 371
  37. ↑ Coombes, Allen (2012). The A to Z of Plant Names: A Quick Reference Guide to 4000 Garden Plants. Portland, OR, US: Timber Press. p. 40. ISBN   9781604691962.
  38. ↑ Britton, N. F.; Brown, Addison (1970). An illustrated flora of the northern United States and Canada: from Newfoundland to the parallel of the southern boundary of Virginia, and from the Atlantic Ocean westward to the 102d meridian. New York: Dover Publications. p. 315. ISBN   978-0-486-22644-6.
  39. ↑ "Alaska (U.S. National Park Service)" (PDF). Nps.gov. 2018-12-19. Retrieved 2019-06-17.
  40. ↑ Loewer, Peter (2001). Solving weed problems . Guilford, Conn.: Lyons Press. p.  210. ISBN   978-1-58574-274-5. Swine's Snout.
  41. ↑ "Dandelion clock". TheFreeDictionary.com.
  42. ↑ Clare, B. A.; Conroy, R. S.; Spelman, K. (2009). "The Diuretic Effect in Human Subjects of an Extract of Taraxacum officinale Folium over a Single Day". Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine. 15 (8): 929–934. doi:10.1089/acm.2008.0152. PMC   3155102 . PMID   19678785.
  43. ↑ Vít Bojňanský; Agáta Fargašová (2007). Atlas of Seeds and Fruits of Central and East-European Flora: The Carpathian Mountains Region. シュプリンガー・ジャパン株式会社. pp. 751–. ISBN   978-1-4020-5361-0 . Retrieved 29 October 2010.
  44. ↑ Tekiela, Stan (1999). Wildflowers of Minnesota: Field Guide. Cambridge, Minnesota: Adventure Publications, Inc. p. 343. ISBN   978-1-885061-63-8.
  45. ↑ Wong, James (16 May 2021). "Why the dandelion blows away some plant collectors". The Guardian. Retrieved 9 September 2021.
  46. 1 2 Stewart-Wade, S. M.; S. Newmann; L.L.Collins; G.J. Boland (2002). "The biology of Canadian weeds. 117. Taraxacum officinale G.H. Weber ex Wiggers". Canadian Journal of Plant Science. 82 (4): 825–853. doi:10.4141/P01-010.
  47. ↑ Richardson, Jonathan (1985). "In praise of the archenemy". Audubon. 87: 37–39.
  48. ↑ Almanac, Old Farmer's. "Weeds as Indicator Plants". Old Farmer's Almanac. Retrieved 2020-04-10.
  49. ↑ "Taraxacum officinale". Fs.fed.us. Retrieved 2011-10-23.
  50. ↑ Binning, Kim (2002). "Dandelion". University of Wisconsin Weed Science Cooperative Extension.
  51. ↑ Martinkova, Zdenka; Honek, Alois; Pekar, Stano (2014). "The Role of Nurse Plants in Facilitating the Germination of Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale) Seeds". Weed Science. 62 (3): 474–482. doi:10.1614/WS-D-13-00162.1. S2CID   85658841.
  52. ↑ Schmidt, Justin O.; Thoenes, Steven C.; Levin, M.D. (1987). "Survival of honey bees, Apis mellifera (Hymenoptera: Apidae), fed various pollen sources". Annals of the Entomological Society of America. 80 (2): 176–183. doi:10.1093/aesa/80.2.176.
  53. ↑ Girard, Mélissa; Chagnon, Madeleine; Fournier, Valérie (2012). "Pollen diversity collected by honey bees in the vicinity of Vaccinium spp. crops and its importance for colony development". Botany. 90 (7): 545–555. doi:10.1139/b2012-049. hdl: 20.500.11794/39125 .
  54. ↑ Laverty, Terence; Hiemstra, Henry (1998). "Effects of flowering dandelions as a competitor to flowers of fruit trees for pollen-collecting honey bees in Ontario". The Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Ontario. 129: 3–8.
  55. ↑ Stewart-Wade, S. M.; Neumann, S.; Collins, L. L.; Boland, G. J. (2002-10-01). "The biology of Canadian weeds. 117. Taraxacum officinale G. H. Weber ex Wiggers". Canadian Journal of Plant Science. 82 (4): 825–853. doi:10.4141/P01-010. ISSN   0008-4220.
  56. ↑ Sonchus North Carolina Extension Gardener Plant Toolbox
  57. ↑ "Recipes - Dandelion Wine". Cooks.com. Retrieved 2011-10-23.
  58. ↑ Clarke, Charlotte Bringle (1977). Edible and useful plants of California. Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 191. ISBN   978-0-520-03261-3.
  59. ↑ Benoliel, Doug (2011). Northwest Foraging: The Classic Guide to Edible Plants of the Pacific Northwest (Rev. and updated ed.). Seattle, WA: Skipstone. p. 73. ISBN   978-1-59485-366-1. OCLC   668195076.
  60. ↑ "winemaking: Dandelion Wines". Winemaking.jackkeller.net. 2004-05-22. Retrieved 2012-07-20.
  61. ↑ Gibbons, E. Stalking the Wild Asparagus. David McKay, New York. 1962.
  62. ↑ Sztabowa, Wera (1990). Krupnioki i moczka, czyli gawędy o śląskiej kuchni. Wydawnictwo Śląsk, Katowice, ISBN   83-216-0935-X.
  63. ↑ Dog, Tieraona Low (2005-01-01), Dog, Tieraona Low (ed.), "CHAPTER 18 - Urinary Tract Infection", Women's Health in Complementary and Integrative Medicine, Saint Louis: Churchill Livingstone, pp. 293–306, ISBN   978-0-443-06639-9 , retrieved 2022-09-14
  64. ↑ Clare, Bevin A.; Conroy, Richard S.; Spelman, Kevin (August 2009). "The Diuretic Effect in Human Subjects of an Extract of Taraxacum officinale Folium over a Single Day". Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine. 15 (8): 929–934. doi:10.1089/acm.2008.0152. ISSN   1075-5535. PMC   3155102 . PMID   19678785.
  65. ↑ Katrin Schütz, Reinhold Carle & Andreas Schieber (2006). "Taraxacum—a review on its phytochemical and pharmacological profile". Journal of Ethnopharmacology . 107 (3): 313–323. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2006.07.021. PMID   16950583.
  66. ↑ Adams, Keith L. (2010). "Dandelions 'remember' stress: heritable stress-induced methylation patterns in asexual dandelions". The New Phytologist. 185 (4): 867–868. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2010.03189.x. PMID   20356338.
  67. 1 2 Esprivalo, Pamela Sue; Forney, Scott (2001). "Cultivating Cultural Appreciation: ADDRESSING DIVERSITY THROUGH ETHNOBOTANY". The Science Teacher. 68 (3).
  68. ↑ Dyer, A. (1976). Dyes from Natural Sources. G. Bell & Sons Ltd., London
  69. ↑ The Complete Guide to Edible Wild Plants. United States Department of the Army. New York: Skyhorse Publishing. 2009. p. 49. ISBN   978-1-60239-692-0. OCLC   277203364.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)

Further reading

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.