The Aversion Project

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The Aversion Project was a medical torture programme in South Africa led by Aubrey Levin [1] during apartheid. The project identified gay soldiers and conscripts who used drugs in the South African Defence Forces (SADF). Victims were forced to submit to "curing" their homosexuality [1] because the SADF considered homosexuality to be subversive, and those who were homosexual were subject to punishment. [2] In 1995, the South African Medical Association issued a public apology for past wrongdoings.

Contents

History

Under apartheid, there was a dual policy on homosexuality in the South African military. Permanent members of the military were prohibited from being homosexual, while it was allowed for conscripts. Officials believed that completely banning homosexuality from the military would give a specific group of individuals – young, white South African men – a convenient way to avoid serving in the military.[ citation needed ] However, with the supposed toleration of homosexuality came forced 'therapy,' such as compulsion shock therapy, castration, and other forms of 'therapy', which were said to significantly violate basic human rights. [3]

Between 1971 and 1989, victims were submitted to chemical castration and electric aversion treatment meant to cure them of their homosexuality. [4] This trend was supported by psychiatrists who believed homosexuals were mentally ill, a claim stated in the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders . [5] Conscripts with this proclaimed 'mental illness' were treated differently than other members of the military. They were not given military leadership positions, and they were not entrusted with sensitive information. [3]

During the course of the shock therapy, treatment electrodes were strapped to the upper arm with wires, then run through a dial calibrated from 1 to 10, varying the current. Homosexual soldiers were shown black-and-white pictures of a naked man and were encouraged to fantasize, at which point the person in charge would administer a shock if the soldiers showed any form of sexual response. The voltage was increased throughout the treatment if the soldiers continued to exhibit sexual responses. The patient would then be shown a coloured picture of a woman, which was supposed to stimulate arousal. However, more often than not, this failed. [6]

As a result of these failures, there is also evidence that sexual realignment procedures took place on the people who were unable to be 'cured.' [3] Due to the lack of scientific evidence to prove that these procedures have the ability to alter sexuality, they began declining in frequency during the 1970s, when treatment for homosexual soldiers was no longer supported by the field of mental health. [7] Consequently, the definition of homosexuals as mentally ill was removed from the American Psychiatric Association's manual in 1973, and the treatment was left behind. [5]

The Aversion Research Project

The Aversion Research Project was formed by a team of academic researchers and activists who came together in order to obtain more information about the treatment of homosexual military personnel during the Apartheid era. This was a research project based on qualitative methodology, further examining why homosexuality was considered to be unusual behaviour at that time. Homosexual individuals who were targets of the conversion therapy, along with their families and friends, were interviewed in order to obtain in-depth, first-hand experiences of those directly impacted.

Prior to the project, the researchers had to be approved by a research committee. The research committee, however, took issue with the use of the word 'abuse' as a way of describing what happened to homosexual military personnel. The research committee believed that considering the conversion 'therapy' to be abuse was only an assumption unsupported by factual evidence.

Therefore, the term 'abuse', when used in the research project, had to be supported with factual evidence. Additionally, the research ethics committee did not agree with the researchers' designation of the actions of psychologists initiating this conversion shock therapy as a human rights violation. This raised concerns about the research project, as the committee clearly did not want this to be an investigation into the practices of medical officials involved in the military. Furthermore, the committee questioned the sampling methods of the researchers. Because researchers would be accepting volunteers, the committee found that the sampling method used would not be representative of the experience as a whole. [7]

Aubrey Levin

Aubrey Levin was the leader of the project against homosexual military personnel. He argued that the same type of procedures could cure other groups, such as drug addicts and the "disturbed" (those who did not want to serve in the apartheid military). He started the project and then ran Ward 22 at 1 Military Hospital, in Voortrekkerhoogte, which is where the majority of the patients were treated. He was one of 24 other doctors that were warned by the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (South Africa) that what they were doing was a violation of human rights, and that they risked being labelled as perpetrators of human rights abuses. [8] Levin claimed that all patients were volunteers. [9] Since then, Levin has been accused of several more instances of medical foul practice, targeting many other men (not only those who identified as homosexual). He was sentenced to a five-year prison term on April 23, 2014. [10]

Post-project

After it became noticeable that conversion therapy was failing, staff came up with an alternative. As a result, patients who had failed the initial treatment were subjected to a sex change. This included being put through surgery and being given a new identity. [5] Patients would then be discharged from the military and advised to cut themselves off from family and friends. As many as 900 homosexuals, mostly 16 to 24-year-olds who had been drafted, were subjected to surgical procedures to alter their genitals and given birth certificates to fit their modified anatomy. This surgery was done in military hospitals, and a high rate[ vague ] of patients died during surgery. Additionally, the reassignments were often left incomplete, leaving patients with halfway-finished procedures. [2] After being discharged, there were no follow-up appointments to complete the surgeries or check on patients' mental and physical health. Without adequate mental preparation for such a significant personal change, patients also faced depression, leading many to commit suicide.

Related Research Articles

Conversion therapy is the pseudoscientific practice of attempting to change an individual's sexual orientation, gender identity, or gender expression to align with heterosexual and cisgender norms. Methods that have been used to this end include forms of brain surgery, surgical or hormonal castration, aversive treatments such as electric shocks, nausea-inducing drugs, hypnosis, counseling, spiritual interventions, visualization, psychoanalysis, and arousal reconditioning.

Anti-psychiatry, sometimes spelled antipsychiatry without the hyphen, is a movement based on the view that psychiatric treatment is often more damaging than helpful to patients, highlighting controversies about psychiatry. Objections include the reliability of psychiatric diagnosis, the questionable effectiveness and harm associated with psychiatric medications, the failure of psychiatry to demonstrate any disease treatment mechanism for psychiatric medication effects, and legal concerns about equal human rights and civil freedom being nullified by the presence of diagnosis. Historical critiques of psychiatry came to light after focus on the extreme harms associated with electroconvulsive therapy or insulin shock therapy. The term "anti-psychiatry" is in dispute and often used to dismiss all critics of psychiatry, many of whom agree that a specialized role of helper for people in emotional distress may at times be appropriate, and allow for individual choice around treatment decisions.

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Medical torture describes the involvement of, or sometimes instigation by, medical personnel in acts of torture, either to judge what victims can endure, to apply treatments which will enhance torture, or as torturers in their own right. Medical torture overlaps with medical interrogation if it involves the use of professional medical expertise to facilitate interrogation or corporal punishment, in the conduct of torturous human experimentation or in providing professional medical sanction and approval for the torture of prisoners. Medical torture also covers torturous scientific experimentation upon unwilling human subjects.

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Robert Leopold Spitzer was a psychiatrist and professor of psychiatry at Columbia University in New York City. He was a major force in the development of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM).

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References

  1. 1 2 "Africa | Apartheid Military Forced Gay Troops Into Sex-Change Operations". The Gully. 2000-08-25. Retrieved 2013-02-04.
  2. 1 2 Kaplan, Robert M. (2004-12-16). "Treatment of homosexuality during apartheid". BMJ. 329 (7480): 1415–1416. doi:10.1136/bmj.329.7480.1415. ISSN   0959-8138. PMC   535952 . PMID   15604160.
  3. 1 2 3 Belkin, Aaron; Canaday, Margot (2010). "Assessing the Integration of Gays and Lesbians into the South African National Defence Force". Scientia Militaria: South African Journal of Military Studies. 38 (2): 1–21. doi: 10.5787/38-2-87 .
  4. ↑ McGreal, Chris (28 July 2000). "Gays Tell of Mutilation by Apartheid Army". The Guardian. Retrieved 23 August 2015.
  5. 1 2 3 Kaplan, Robert (2004). "Treatment of Homosexuality During Apartheid". British Medical Journal. 329 (7480): 1415–1416. doi:10.1136/bmj.329.7480.1415. JSTOR   25469630. PMC   535952 . PMID   15604160.
  6. ↑ Kaplan, Robert (2001). "The Aversion Project-Psychiatric Abuses in the South African Defence Force During the Apartheid Era". Health and Human Rights. 91: 1–2 – via SAMJ Forum.
  7. 1 2 De Gruchy J, Jeanelle; Lewin, Simon (2001). "Ethics that Exclude: The Role of Ethics Committees in Lesbian and Gay Health Research in South Africa". American Journal of Public Health. 91 (6): 865–868. doi:10.2105/ajph.91.6.865. PMC   1446457 . PMID   11392923.
  8. ↑ Kaplan, Robert (March 2001). "The Aversion Project Psychiatric Abuses in the South African Defense Force During the Apartheid Era". p. 2 – via World Press.
  9. ↑ Jones, Tiffany (2008). "Averting White Male (Ab)normality: Psychiatric Representations and Treatment of Homosexuality in 1960's South Africa". Journal of Southern African Studies. 34 (2): 397–410. doi:10.1080/03057070802038058. JSTOR   40283145. S2CID   144858569.
  10. ↑ Poplack, Richard. "Dr. Shock" . Retrieved 2017-02-28.
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