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Japanese writing |
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Components |
Uses |
Transliteration |
In contemporary Japanese writing, foreign-language loanwords and foreign names are normally written in the katakana script, which is one component of the Japanese writing system. As far as possible, sounds in the source language are matched to the nearest sounds in the Japanese language, and the result is transcribed using standard katakana characters, each of which represents one syllable (strictly mora). For example, America is written アメリカ (A-me-ri-ka). To accommodate various foreign-language sounds not present in Japanese, a system of extended katakana has also developed to augment standard katakana.
Katakana, like hiragana, has a one-to-one correspondence between sounds and characters. Therefore, once the "Japanese sound" of a word is established, there is no ambiguity in its katakana spelling (unlike spelling in English, for example).
A much less common form of transcription, Ateji, uses kanji characters for their phonetic values.
Because Japanese is written with relatively complex Kanji characters, Japanese text must generally be written larger for legibility. Furthermore, as both Kanji and Kana are traditionally of equal width and height, Japanese characters are generally much larger than Latin characters. As Kanji are logographic and Kana encode entire syllables (or rather, morae), the higher information density of Japanese writing usually evens out with the larger text so that Japanese and English texts take about the same amount of space, but challenges arise with foreign consonant clusters incompatible with Japanese phonotactics and the Kana system. For example, the word remote control becomes the cumbersome リモートコントロール (ri-mō-to-ko-n-to-rō-ru) in Japanese. Here, additional vowels are added between [t] and [k] , between [t] and [ɾ] , and after [ɾ] at the word's end, and the vowels of mo and ro have been lengthened to mimic the English pronunciation. These additional sounds not only add to the word's length when spoken, but it also severely bloats the word when written. As such, the word is typically shortened to simply リモコン (ri-mo-ko-n) in modern Japanese speech and writing.
Since Japanese has few closed syllables, syllable-final consonants in the source language are often represented using the -u (or sometimes -o or -i) kanas with implicitly silent vowels – though this vowel often is pronounced in Japanese – or the syllable coda is not represented at all. For example, the name Jim is written ジム (Ji-mu). A similar principle applies to consonant clusters; for example spring would be transcribed as スプリング (su-pu-ri-n-gu), and scratch would be transcribed as スクラッチ (su-ku-ra-cchi).
Japanese has only five native vowel sounds, each a pure vowel (monophthong) with a long and short form, and some degree of approximation is necessary when representing vowels from, for example, English. Diphthongs are represented by sequences of vowels, and pronounced with hiatus, as a sequence of discrete monophthongs, not a diphthong, as in ブラウン Bu-ra-u-n "Brown", ナイス na-i-su "nice", ディア di-a "dear/deer", レア re-a "rare". etc. The English spelling <ore> (phonologically /ɔː/ (RP) or /ɔːr/ (GA)) is usually "diphthongized" as o-a in Japanese (e.g. コア ko-a "core"), possibly because it is also pronounced as a diphthong (/oə/) in some accents of English. The English /eɪ/ is transcribed to either e-e (エース e-e-su "ace") or e-i (スペイン Su-pe-i-n "Spain"); similarly, /əʊ/ is transcribed to either o-o (ショー sho-o "show") or o-u (シャドウ sha-do-u "shadow").
Japanese does not have separate l and r sounds, and l- is normally transcribed using the kana that are perceived as representing r-. For example, London becomes ロンドン (Ro-n-do-n). Other sounds not present in Japanese may be converted to the nearest Japanese equivalent; for example, the name Smith is written スミス (Su-mi-su). Foreign sounds can be difficult to express in Japanese, resulting in spellings such as フルシチョフ Furushichofu (Khrushchev), アリー・ハーメネイー Arī Hāmeneī (Ali Khamenei) and イツハク・パールマン Itsuhaku Pāruman or イツァーク・パールマン Itsāku Pāruman (Itzhak Perlman).
The English voiceless labialized velar approximant /hw/ (orthographically wh), which is a distinct phoneme from /w/ in some varieties of English, can be transcribed as ho(w)-. For example, White is ホワイト Howaito, whale is ホエール hoēru.
French /w/ is typically transcribed as u, but the sequence /wa/ is as o-(w)a (e.g. ポアロ Po-a-ro "Poirot").
The English /ti(ː)/ and /tɪ/ is typically transcribed to チ chi (e.g. チーム chīmu "team"), but ティ ti is also used (ティア tia "tear"). The suffix -tic can be transcribed to either チック -chikku or ティック -tikku. However, -ty is almost always transcribed to ティ(ー) -ti(i), not *チ(ー) *-chi(i) (e.g. パーティー pātī "party", インフィニティ infiniti "infinity").
The English schwa /ə/ is variously "transcribed" to a, e, o, depending on the English spelling (this is more of transliteration than it is transcription). For example, デュアル dyu-a-ru "dual", デュエル dyu-e-ru "duel", テスタメント Te-su-ta-me-n-to "Testament", ロンドン Ro-n-do-n "London". There are no definite rules when it comes to the schwa, however; e.g. ランダム ra-n-da-mu "random", オープン o-o-pu-n "open", ザ za "the". The British /ə/ which is equivalent to the North American /ɚ/ is transcribed to a(-a); e.g. コンピュータ(ー) ko-n-pyu-u-ta(-a) "computer", モーター mo-o-ta-a "motor". On the other hand, the French schwa is transcribed to u or o (e.g. ソムリエ so-mu-ri-e "sommelier", ド do "de") similarly to instances where there's a lack of vowels, and the German schwa is almost always transcribed to e (e.g. アルベルト A-ru-be-ru-to "Albert", ウンディーネ un-di-i-ne "undine").
Although the diphthong /au/ across languages is usually transcribed as アウ a-u, local reading transcriptions of the same sequence from Mandarin, represented in both Wade–Giles and Pinyin as ao are represented as アオ a-o instead, again in more of a manner of transliteration based on these systems - e.g. マオ・ツォートン ma-o tso-o-to-n (Mao Zedong).
The English /æ/ is typically transcribed to a; e.g. マン ma-n "man", チャネル cha-ne-ru "channel". The sequences /kæ/ and /ɡæ/ are sometimes transcribed to kya and gya respectively; e.g. キャンディ kyandi "candy", ギャラクシー gya-ra-ku-shi-i "galaxy".
The older English suffix -age /-ɪdʒ/ is always transcribed to -e-e-ji as if it were pronounced as /eɪdʒ/ as in "age" or "rage"; e.g. メッセージ me-s-se-e-ji "message", パッケージ pa-k-ke-e-ji "package". The more recent -age /-ɑːʒ/ is more "properly" transcribed to -a-a-ju; e.g. ミラージュ mi-ra-a-ju "mirage". However, "garage" /gəˈrɑːʒ/ is more commonly transcribed to ガレージ ga-re-e-ji as it also has /ˈgærɪdʒ/ as an alternative pronunciation in British English.
The phoneme /v/ in various languages is transcribed either to b or v, although it is unknown whether there is such an equivalent phoneme /v/ in Japanese. For example, ベネチア Benechia / ヴェネツィア Ve-ne-tsi-a "Venezia" (Italian for "Venice"), オーバー o-o-ba-a "over", ラブ ra-bu / ラヴ ravu "love".
The German /v/ (orthographically w) can be transcribed in several ways. In long-established words, it is generally w. E.g.: Walküre "valkyrie" > ワルキューレ wa-ru-kyu-u-re. In newer transcriptions, it can also be v. E.g.: Schwestern "sisters" > シュヴェスタン shu-ve-su-tan.
Wa is usually written as ワ, although ウァ is sometimes used in transcriptions from Ancient Greek or Latin (e.g. ミネルウァ Mi-ne-ru-wa "Minerva").
French vowels are usually phonemically transcribed, but non-phonemic stressed vowels (utterance-final) are sometimes also transcribed as long vowels. Compare the examples of メゾン me-zo-n "maison" and カレー ka-re-e "Calais", in which the same vowel /ɛ/ is transcribed as e and e-e depending on whether it is stressed or not. The French schwa is ignored altogether: words are usually transcribed as if there were no schwa at all. For example, the word "le" is transcribed as ル ru, as is the single sound /l/ in "cheval" > シュヴァル shuvaru.
Although a syllable-final /n/ is typically transcribed using the moraic ン n, ン is used in French to transcribe nasalized vowels, so French words with a final /n/ often use ヌ nu instead for distinction, e.g. マドレーヌ Ma-do-re-e-nu "Madeleine". This is especially the case when the masculine and feminine of a word are distinct in French, e.g. bon --> ボン bo-n, vs. bonne --> ボンヌ bo-n-nu (the n is sometimes doubled, especially when the French orthography uses two n, even if it has no consequence in the French pronunciation).
Plain short consonants may be transcribed as geminated consonants to reflect the laxness of the preceding vowel, although this is not universal and there are plenty of exceptions. For example: English kick is キック ki-k-ku and castle is キャッスル kya-s-su-ru, but extra is エクストラ e-ku-su-to-ra and battle is バトル ba-to-ru. This practice expands to almost all English obstruents regardless of their voicing (/k/, /ɡ/, /s/, /z/, /f/, etc.), also to German/Scots /x/, occasionally to /n/ and /m/ (as pseudo-geminated consonant sequences /nn/ or /nm/). For example: English bag is バ(ッ)グ ba-(g)-gu; English Anna is アンナ A-n-na; English gamma is ガンマ ga-n-ma; English shuffle is シャッフル sha-f-fu-ru; German Mach is マッハ ma-h-ha, Masoch is マゾッホ Ma-zo-h-ho.
German [x] is transcribed roughly as h-h, accordingly to its preceding vowel, if it's not followed by a vowel (e.g. マッハ ma-h-ha "Mach", バッハ Ba-h-ha "Bach", マゾッホ Ma-zo-h-ho "Masoch"); [ç], its allophone occurring only after high vowels and consonants, are as h if followed by a vowel (e.g. メルヘン me-ru-hen "Märchen"), or as hi if not (e.g. リヒター Ri-hi-ta-a "Richter"). Russian /x/ is transcribed as fu if not followed by a vowel (e.g. カザフスタン Ka-za-fu-su-ta-n "Kazakhstan"). Mandarin [ɕ] (in pinyin x(i)) is transcribed as sh (e.g. シャオ shao from 小 xiǎo "little").
Geminated consonants are typically transcribed consistently and faithfully, as gemination is also featured in Japanese. The only notable exceptions are /rr/ and /ɲɲ/, although /ll/ and /ʎʎ/ are still transcribed. Examples: Arabic : الله, romanized: Allāh is アッラーフ A-r-ra-a-fu; Italian Donatello is ドナテッロ Do-na-te-r-ro; Italian degli is デッリ de-r-ri; but Italian Verrocchio is simply ヴェロッキオ Ve-ro-k-ki-o, not *Ve-r-ro-k-ki-o. Italian /ɲɲ/ may be transcribed as the lengthened portion of the preceding vowel and a sequence of /nj/. For example, Sardegna is サルデーニャ Sa-ru-de-e-nya.
Similar to the way speakers of English say Italian words, Japanese does not usually transcribe the Italian glide /j/ to reflect its true nature, but as /i/, perhaps for consistency and convenience. For example, Venezia is ヴェネツィア Ve-ne-tsi-a, Sicilia is シチリア Shi-chi-ri-a. Contemporary transcriptions of palatalized consonants from Slavic languages, however, are made using yōon, e.g.: Russian ピャチゴルスク Pya-chi-go-ru-su-ku (Pyatigorsk), Polish ビェルスコ=ビャワ Bye-ru-su-ko=bya-wa (Bielsko-Biała).
Modern English compounds are usually transcribed in a way that reflects the independent pronunciations of the individual components. That is to say, there is no phonetic linking between components. For example, "overall" is transcribed as オーバーオール o-o-ba-a-o-o-ru, not *o-o-ba-a-ro-o-ru as it is pronounced in English. However, there are a few exceptions, such as "pineapple", which is transcribed as パイナップル pa-i-na-p-pu-ru, or "double-u", as ダブリュー da-bu-ryu-u.
Long vowels are generally written with ー to indicate lengthening, as in コーラ kōra (cola), rather than writing a distinct vowel ×コウラ *koura. There are two irregularities of note here. Firstly, lengthening of the final vowel may be ambiguous, and vary over time or between users. For example, in present Japan, "computer" is generally represented as コンピューター konpyūtā (long final), but in some cases, such as the computer industry, following Japanese Industrial Standards, it is represented as コンピュータ konpyūta (short final). [1] Secondly, in modern Chinese loanwords, notably food names, in careful transcription diphthongs are represented by separate vowels, even if in Japanese they would appear to be a long vowel; this is particularly common with òu, especially in 豆 dòu "(soy) bean", usually rendered as トウ. Further, long vowels in the Japanese transcription need not reflect Chinese pronunciation. For example, the dish 東坡肉 "Dongpo pork", in pinyin dōngpōròu (dōng·pō·ròu), is represented in Japanese as ドンポーロウ donpōrou, or more commonly トンポーロウ tonpōrou. Note that in Chinese pinyin ō represents a high tone, while in Japanese ō represents a long vowel, and /d/ is pronounced differently (Chinese /d/ is similar to Japanese or English /t/). This distinction is not always followed, and varies by term: the spelling トンポーロー tonpōrō is also common; and in terms such as 回鍋肉 twice cooked pork, the spelling ホイコーロー is more common, despite representing diphthongs.
In modern times, an extended katakana system has developed to cater for foreign sounds not present in Japanese. Most of these novel katakana forms are digraphs, composed of standard katakana characters, but in digraph combinations not found in native words. For example, the word photo is transcribed as フォト (fo-to), where the novel digraph フォ (fo) is made up from フ (normally fu) plus a novel small combining form of オ (normally o). In other cases novel diacritics may be applied to create new sounds, such as ヴ for vu, which consists of ウ (u) combined with a dakuten to indicate a voiced pronunciation.
Japanese is written without spaces between words, and, to aid understanding, foreign phrases and names are sometimes transliterated with an interpunct separating the words, called a nakaguro (中黒, middle dot); for example, ビル・ゲイツ (Bill Gates). When it is assumed that the reader knows the separate gairaigo words in the phrase, the middle dot is omitted, especially for wasei eigo. For example, the phrase コンピューターゲームkonpyūtā gēmu ("computer game") contains two well-known gairaigo, and therefore is not written with a middle dot; the same principle is applied for パンティストッキングpanti sutokkingu ("pantyhose", lit. "panty stocking"), Japanese coinage.
The following tables give the Hepburn romanization and an approximate IPA transcription for katakana as used in contemporary Japanese. Their use in transcription is, of course, in the inverse direction.
Monographs (gojūon) | Digraphs (yōon) | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
a | i | u | e | o | ya | yu | yo | |
∅ | ア a [a] | イ i [i] | ウ u [ɯ] | エ e [e] [n 1] | オ o [o] | |||
K | カ ka [ka] | キ ki [ki] | ク ku [kɯ] | ケ ke [ke] | コ ko [ko] | キャ kya [kʲa] | キュ kyu [kʲɯ] | キョ kyo [kʲo] |
S | サ sa [sa] | シ shi [ɕi] | ス su [sɯ] | セ se [se] | ソ so [so] | シャ sha [ɕa] | シュ shu [ɕɯ] | ショ sho [ɕo] |
T | タ ta [ta] | チ chi [t͡ɕi] | ツ tsu [t͡sɯ] | テ te [te] | ト to [to] | チャ cha [t͡ɕa] | チュ chu [t͡ɕɯ] | チョ cho [t͡ɕo] |
N | ナ na [na] | ニ ni [ɲi] | ヌ nu [nɯ] | ネ ne [ne] | ノ no [no] | ニャ nya [ɲa] | ニュ nyu [ɲɯ] | ニョ nyo [ɲo] |
H | ハ ha [ha] | ヒ hi [çi] | フ fu [ɸɯ] | ヘ he [he] | ホ ho [ho] | ヒャ hya [ça] | ヒュ hyu [çɯ] | ヒョ hyo [ço] |
M | マ ma [ma] | ミ mi [mi] | ム mu [mɯ] | メ me [me] | モ mo [mo] | ミャ mya [mʲa] | ミュ myu [mʲɯ] | ミョ myo [mʲo] |
Y | ヤ ya [ja] | [n 2] | ユ yu [jɯ] | [n 3] | ヨ yo [jo] | |||
R | ラ ra [ɾa] | リ ri [ɾi] | ル ru [ɾɯ] | レ re [ɾe] | ロ ro [ɾo] | リャ rya [ɾʲa] | リュ ryu [ɾʲɯ] | リョ ryo [ɾʲo] |
W | ワ wa [ɰa] | [n 4] | [n 2] | [n 4] | ヲ wo [wo] [n 4] | |||
Monographs with diacritics: gojūon with (han)dakuten | Digraphs with diacritics: yōon with (han)dakuten | |||||||
a | i | u | e | o | ya | yu | yo | |
G | ガ ga [ɡa] | ギ gi [ɡi] | グ gu [ɡɯ] | ゲ ge [ɡe] | ゴ go [ɡo] | ギャ gya [ɡʲa] | ギュ gyu [ɡʲɯ] | ギョ gyo [ɡʲo] |
Z | ザ za [za] | ジ ji [(d)ʑi] | ズ zu [(d)zɯ] | ゼ ze [ze] | ゾ zo [zo] | ジャ ja [(d)ʑa] | ジュ ju [(d)ʑɯ] | ジョ jo [(d)ʑo] |
D | ダ da [da] | [n 5] | [n 5] | デ de [de] | ド do [do] | [n 5] | [n 5] | [n 5] |
B | バ ba [ba] | ビ bi [bi] | ブ bu [bɯ] | ベ be [be] | ボ bo [bo] | ビャ bya [bʲa] | ビュ byu [bʲɯ] | ビョ byo [bʲo] |
P | パ pa [pa] | ピ pi [pi] | プ pu [pɯ] | ペ pe [pe] | ポ po [po] | ピャ pya [pʲa] | ピュ pyu [pʲɯ] | ピョ pyo [pʲo] |
Final nasal monograph | Polysyllabic monographs | |||||||
n | iu | koto | shite | toki | tomo | nari | ||
* | ン n [ɴmnɲŋɰ̃] | iu [jɯː] | ヿ koto [koto] | shite [ɕite] | / toki [toki] | tomo [tomo] | nari [naɾi] | |
* | ゙ domo [domo] | |||||||
Functional graphemes | ||||||||
sokuonfu | chōonpu | odoriji (monosyllable) | odoriji (polysyllable) | |||||
* | ッ (indicates a geminate consonant) | ー (after long vowel) | ヽ (reduplicates and unvoices syllable) | 〱 (reduplicates and unvoices syllable) | ||||
* | ヾ (reduplicates and voices syllable) | 〱゙ (reduplicates and voices syllable) | ||||||
* | ヽ゚ (reduplicates and voices syllable) | 〱゚ (reduplicates and voices syllable) |
Notes
The following katakana tokushuon (特殊音) [2] have been developed or proposed specifically for the purposes of transcribing foreign words. Examples such as トゥ(tu) in カートゥーン(cartoon), ティ(ti) in パーティ(party), ツァ (tsa) in モーツァルト(Mozart) are found mostly in foreign words.
Orange | General kana combinations used for loanwords or foreign place names or personal names, set forth by the Japanese government's Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT, Monbushō). [3] |
*Blue | Combinations used for more accurate transliteration of foreign sounds, again set forth by MEXT.[ clarification needed ] |
†Beige | Suggestions by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI Z39.11) [4] and the British Standards Institution (BS 4812), [5] both are identical and from 1972.[ clarification needed ] Attention: In these old standards obsolete kanas like ヰ(wi) and ヱ(we) are still included, same for ヷ(va), ヸ(vi), ヹ(ve), ヺ(vo). |
‡Purple | Combinations that appear in the 1974 version of the Hyōjun-shiki formatting. [6] |
a | i | u | e | o | ya | yu | ye | yo | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
K | キェ kye† | |||||||||
Kw | クヮ kwa* | クィ kwi* | クェ kwe* | クォ kwo* | ||||||
G | ギェ gye† | |||||||||
Gw | グヮ gwa* | グィ gwi† | グェ gwe† | グォ gwo† | ||||||
S | スィ si‡ | シェ she | ||||||||
Z J | ズィ zi‡ | ジェ je | ||||||||
T | ティ ti | トゥ tu* | テュ tyu* | チェ che | ||||||
Ts | ツァ tsa | ツィ tsi* | ツェ tse | ツォ tso | ||||||
D | ディ di | ドゥ du* | デュ dyu | |||||||
N | ニェ nye† | |||||||||
H | ホゥ hu‡ | ヒェ hye† | ||||||||
F | ファ fa | フィ fi | フェ fe | フォ fo | フャ fya† | フュ fyu* | フィェ fye† | フョ fyo† | ||
B | ビェ bye† | |||||||||
P | ピェ pye† | |||||||||
M | ミェ mye† | |||||||||
Y | イィ yi‡ | イェ ye* | ||||||||
R | リェ rye† | |||||||||
W | ウィ wi* | ウゥ wu‡ | ウェ we* | ウォ wo* | ウュ wyu† | |||||
V | (ヷ)ヴァ va* | (ヸ)ヴィ vi* | ヴ vu* | (ヹ)ヴェ ve* | (ヺ)ヴォ vo* | ヴャ vya† | ヴュ vyu* | ヴィェ vye† | ヴョ vyo† |
English phonemes | Common English graphemes | Japanese transcription in modified Hepburn romanization | Examples | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Received Pronunciation | General American | If the English consonant is prevocalic and not postvocalic | If the English consonant is intervocalic | If the English consonant is not prevocalic | ||
/æ/ | ⟨a⟩; ⟨ae⟩; ⟨al⟩; ⟨au⟩ | a; ā | ハンド hando "hand"; ラム ramu "ram", "RAM"; サモン samon, サーモン sāmon "salmon" Exception: エンド endo "and" | |||
/ɒ/; /ɔː/ | /ɑː/; /ɔː/ | ⟨a⟩; ⟨ach⟩; ⟨au⟩; ⟨o⟩; ⟨ou⟩ | o; a; ō | ノック nokku "knock"; ショップ shoppu "shop"; オラクル orakuru "oracle"; ウォリアー woriā, ウォーリアー wōriā "warrior"; ウォッチ wotchi "watch"; ヨット yotto "yacht"; ツモロー tsumorō, トゥモロー tumorō "tomorrow"; コロンビア Koronbia "Colombia"; サッカー sakkā "soccer"; カレッジ karejji "college"; カクテル kakuteru "cocktail"; カリフラワー karifurawā "cauliflower"; バレーボール barēbōru "volleyball"; ライノセラス rainoserasu "rhinoceros"; ドール dōru "doll"; ウォーター wōtā "water"; ゴーグル gōguru "goggle"; トーマス Tōmasu "Thomas" | ||
/ɑː/ | /æ/; /ɑː/ | ⟨a⟩; ⟨al⟩; ⟨au⟩ | ā, a | アーント ānto "aunt"; ハーフ hāfu "half"; バス basu "bath"; ファスト fasuto, ファースト fāsuto "fast"; シカゴ Shikago "Chicago"; ダンス dansu "dance" | ||
/ɑː(ɹ)/ | /ɑːɹ/ | ⟨ar⟩; ⟨ear⟩; ⟨er⟩ | ār; a | ā | カー kā "car"; マーカー mākā "marker"; ハート hāto "heart"; サージェント sājento "sergeant"; マーマレード māmarēdo, ママレード mamarēdo "marmalade" | |
/aɪ/ | ⟨ai⟩; ⟨ei⟩; ⟨eigh⟩; ⟨i⟩; ⟨ic⟩; ⟨ie⟩; ⟨igh⟩; ⟨is⟩; ⟨oy⟩; ⟨uy⟩; ⟨y⟩; ⟨ye⟩ | ai | ハイ hai "high", "hi"; ライト raito "right", "light"; ガイ gai "guy"; ガイド gaido "guide"; スタイル sutairu "style"; ハイト haito "height" | |||
/aɪə(ɹ)/ | /aɪɚ/; /aɪ/ | ⟨ia(r)⟩; ⟨igher⟩; ⟨ire⟩; ⟨iro⟩ | aiar; aiyar | aia; aiā; aiya; aiyā | ファイアーfaiā, ファイヤーfaiyā "fire"; アイアン aian "iron"; ダイアリー daiarī, ダイヤリー daiyarī "diary"; ダイヤモンド daiyamondo "diamond" Exceptions: アイルランド Airurando "Ireland"; アイロン airon "iron" | |
/aɪl/ | /l/ | ⟨ile⟩ | airu, uru, oru | ミサイル misairu "missile"; レプタイル reputairu, レプトル reputoru "reptile" | ||
/aʊ/ | ⟨au⟩; ⟨ou⟩; ⟨ough⟩; ⟨ow⟩ | au; a | タウン taun "town"; ダウン daun "down"; プラウ purau "plough", "plow"; ファウンデーション faundēshon, ファンデーション fandēshon "foundation" | |||
/aʊə(ɹ)/ | /aʊɚ/ | ⟨our⟩; ⟨ower⟩ | awār | awā | パワー pawā "power"; アワーawā "our", "hour" | |
/b/ | ⟨b⟩; ⟨bb⟩; ⟨be⟩; ⟨pb⟩ | b | b; bb | bu; bbu | ベンチ benchi "bench"; バッブル babburu "bubble"; ラブrabu "lab"; ブラザー burazā "brother"; ブレイク Bureiku "Blake" Exception: カップボード kappubōdo "cupboard" | |
/d/ | ⟨d⟩; ⟨dd⟩; ⟨de⟩ | d | d; dd; j | do; ddo; zu; zzu; tto | デス desu "death"; ベッドbeddo "bed"; サンデー Sandē "Sunday"; ドゥーム dūmu "doom"; ドラゴン doragon "dragon"; キッドkiddo, キッズkizzu "kid"; リドラー Ridorā "Riddler"; ゼットzetto "zed"; アンデッドandeddo, アンデットandetto "undead"; エジソン Ejison, エディソン Edison, エディスン Edisun "Edison"; クレジット kurejitto "credit" | |
/dju(ː)/ | /du(ː)/;/dʒə/ | ⟨dew⟩; ⟨du⟩; ⟨due⟩ | dyū; dyu | デューク dyūku "duke"; デュアル dyuaru "dual"; デュエル dyueru "duel"; デューdyū "dew", "due"; エデュケーション edyukēshon "education" | ||
/dz/ | ⟨ds⟩; ⟨dds⟩ | zu; zzu | エイズeizu "AIDS"; キッズkizzu "kids"; グッズguzzu "goods" | |||
/dʒ/ | ⟨di⟩; ⟨dg⟩; ⟨dge⟩; ⟨g⟩; ⟨ge⟩; ⟨j⟩ | j | j; jj; z | ji; jji; tsu | ジャンプ janpu "jump"; エッジejji "edge"; ジェリー Jerī "Gerry", "Jerry"; バジェット bajetto "budget"; ガレージgarēji "garage"; ソルジャー sorujā "soldier"; エンジェル enjeru, エンゼル enzeru "angel"; ジェミナイ, ヂェミナイ Jeminai "Gemini"; キャベツkyabetsu "cabbage" | |
/ð/ | ⟨th⟩; ⟨the⟩ | z; j | zu | ザ za, ジー jī "the"; マザー mazā "mother"; アルゴリズム arugorizumu "algorithm" | ||
/ɛ/ | ⟨ae⟩; ⟨e⟩; ⟨ea⟩; ⟨ie⟩; ⟨oe⟩ | e | エンド endo "end"; ヘッド heddo "head"; フレンド furendo "friend" Exception: セーター sētā "sweater" | |||
/ɛə(ɹ)/ | /ɛɹ/ | ⟨ar⟩; ⟨air⟩; ⟨are⟩; ⟨ear⟩; ⟨eir⟩; ⟨ere⟩; ⟨ey're⟩ | ear; er | ea; eā | エアea, エアーeā "air"; シェアshea "share"; ベア bea "bear"; エリア eria "area" Exception: プレーリー purērī "prairie" | |
/ə/ | ⟨a⟩ | a | アーカンソー Ākansō "Arkansas"; イングランド Ingurando "England"; マリガン marigan "mulligan"; アバウト abauto "about"; コンマ konma "comma" Exception: プレデター puredetā "predator" | |||
⟨o⟩ | o; u; a | コモン komon "common"; オブ obu "of"; ツデー tsudē, トゥデー tudē "today"; ダイナソー dainasō, ダイノソー dainosō "dinosaur"; セカンド sekando "second" | ||||
⟨gh⟩; ⟨ou⟩; ⟨ough⟩; ⟨u⟩ | a | サラ sara "thorough"; バラ bara "borough"; エディンバラ Edinbara "Edinburgh"; アルバカーキ Arubakāki "Albuquerque"; ニューファンドランド Nyūfandorando "Newfoundland" | ||||
/ə(ɹ)/ | /ɚ/ | ⟨ar⟩; ⟨er⟩; ⟨ure⟩ | ar | a; ā | ハンガー hangā "hanger", "hangar"; コンピュータ konpyūta, コンピューター konpyūtā "computer"; ロバート Robāto "Robert"; フューチャー fyūchā "future"; ノーザン nōzan "northern"; プロパティ puropati "property"; ハンカチーフ hankachīfu "handkerchief" | |
⟨or⟩; ⟨our⟩ | ar | ā; oru | モーター mōtā "motor"; カラー karā "colour"; カーソル kāsoru "cursor"; メルボルン Meruborun "Melbourne" | |||
/əd/ | /ɚd/ | ⟨oard⟩; ⟨ord⟩ | ōdo | オックスフォードOkkusufōdo "Oxford" | ||
/əl/; /l/ | ⟨al⟩ | aru | プロポーザル puropōzaru "proposal"; ライバル raibaru "rival"; タイダル taidaru "tidal"; オフィシャル ofisharu "official" | |||
⟨ael⟩; ⟨el⟩; ⟨le⟩ | uru; oru; eru | ベーグル bēguru "bagel"; マッスル massuru "muscle"; テーブル tēburu "table"; サイクル saikuru "cycle"; ミドル midoru "middle"; ステープル sutēpuru "staple"; ケトル ketoru "kettle"; パズル pazuru "puzzle"; パネル paneru "panel"; レベル reberu, レヴェルreveru "level", "revel", "rebel"; マイケル Maikeru "Michael" | ||||
/əm/ | ⟨am⟩; ⟨em⟩; ⟨om⟩; ⟨ome⟩ | amu | キングダム kingudamu "kingdom"; ランダム randamu "random"; セイラム Seiramu "Salem"; ゴッサム Gossamu "Gotham"; オーサム ōsamu "awesome" | |||
⟨um⟩ | amu; umu | アルバム arubamu "album"; オポッサム opossamu "opossum"; デューテリウムdyūteriumu "deuterium"; バキュームbakyūmu "vacuum" | ||||
/ən/; /n/ | ⟨ain⟩; ⟨en⟩; ⟨on⟩ | un; on; en | ハイフン haifun "hyphen"; セブン sebun "seven"; フォールン fōrun "fallen"; オープン ōpun "open"; トークン tōkun "token"; リーズン rīzun "reason"; シーズン shīzun "season"; プリズン purizun "prison"; レッスン ressun "lesson"; セコンド sekondo "second"; サドン sadon "sudden"; スウェーデン Suwēden "Sweden"; マウンテン maunten "mountain"; ブリテン Buriten "Britain"; テスタメント tesutamento "testament"; ヘレン Heren "Hellen" Exception: クライアント kuraianto "client"; セカンド sekando "second" | |||
/əs/ | ⟨us⟩ | asu | バイラス bairasu, ヴァイラス vairasu "virus"; コーカス Kōkasasu "Caucasus" | |||
/əʊ/ | /oʊ/ | ⟨au⟩; ⟨eau⟩; ⟨eaux⟩; ⟨o⟩; ⟨oa⟩; ⟨oe⟩; ⟨oh⟩; ⟨ough⟩; ⟨ow⟩; ⟨owe⟩ | ō; ou; o | ゴー gō "go"; ショー shō "show"; シャドー shadō, シャドウ shadou "shadow"; ホーム hōmu "home"; ソウル souru "soul"; オハイオOhaio "Ohio"; ポニー ponī "pony" | ||
/ɜː(ɹ)/ | /ɜːɹ/ | ⟨ear⟩; ⟨er⟩; ⟨ir⟩; ⟨olo⟩; ⟨ur⟩ | ār | ā; a | アース āsu "earth"; スターリング Sutāringu "Sterling", "Stirling"; バーチャル bācharu "virtual"; カーブ kābu "curve", "curb"; カーネル kāneru "colonel", "kernel"; シャツ shatsu "shirt"; オルタナティブ orutanatibu "alternative"; ファーリー fārī "furry" | |
/eɪ/ | ⟨a⟩; ⟨ae⟩; ⟨ai⟩; ⟨ais⟩; ⟨ait⟩; ⟨al⟩; ⟨au⟩; ⟨ay⟩; ⟨e⟩; ⟨ei⟩; ⟨eigh⟩; ⟨et⟩; ⟨ey⟩ | ē; ei; e | ネーム nēmu "name"; ゲージ gēji "gauge"; ドレイク doreiku "drake"; エイト eito "eight"; レイフ Reifu "Ralph"; ポテト poteto "potato"; エンジェル enjeru "angel"; エンシェント enshento "ancient"; ブレザー burezā "blazer"; エプロン epuron "apron"; レディ redi, レディー redī "lady"; ベビー bebī "baby" Exceptions: オーストラリア Ōsutoraria "Australia"; カナディアン Kanadian "Canadian"; ラジオ rajio "radio"; スタジアム sutajiamu "stadium" | |||
/f/ | ⟨f⟩; ⟨fe⟩; ⟨ff⟩; ⟨gh⟩; ⟨ph⟩; ⟨u⟩ | f; h | f; ff | fu; ffu | ファウル fauru "foul"; フライ furai "fry", "fly"; フラワー furawā "flower"; シャッフル shaffuru "shuffle"; ラフrafu "rough"; ヘッドホン heddohon "headphone"; レフテナント refutenanto "lieutenant" | |
/ɡ/ | ⟨g⟩; ⟨gg⟩; ⟨gh⟩; ⟨gu⟩; ⟨gue⟩ | g | g; gg | gu; ggu | ガン gan "gun"; バッグbaggu "bag"; グラインダー guraindā "grinder"; グルー gurū "glue"; マグル Maguru "Muggle"; グール gūru "ghoul"; ギター gitā "guitar" | |
/ɡæ/ | ⟨ga⟩ | ga; gya | ガジェット gajetto "gadget"; ギャラクシー gyarakushī "galaxy"; ギャル gyaru "gal" | |||
/ɡz/ | ⟨gs⟩; ⟨ggs⟩; ⟨x⟩; ⟨xh⟩ | guz; guj; kiz; kuz | guzu; gguzu | エグジット egujitto "exit"; エグゾーダス eguzōdasu "exodus"; エグザミネーション eguzaminēshon "examination"; エキゾチック ekizochikku "exotic"; エキゾースト ekizōsuto "exhaust"; バッグズbagguzu "bags" | ||
/ɡzjuː/ | /ɡzuː/ | ⟨xu⟩; ⟨xhu⟩ | gujū | エグジューム egujūmu "exhume" | ||
/h/ | ⟨gh⟩; ⟨h⟩ | h | ハンター hantā "hunter"; ハッブル Habburu "Hubble" | |||
/huː/; /hʊ/ | ⟨hoo⟩; ⟨who⟩ | fū | フーfū "who"; フッド fuddo, フード fūdo "hood"; フック fukku, ホック hokku "hook" | |||
/ɪ/ | ⟨a⟩; ⟨ae⟩; ⟨e⟩; ⟨ei⟩; ⟨i⟩; ⟨ie⟩; ⟨oe⟩ | i; ī; e; ē | インプット inputto "input"; リミテッド rimiteddo "limited"; ネイキッド neikiddo "naked"; トイレット toiretto "toilet"; オレンジ orenji "orange"; ステッカー sutekkā "sticker"; デステニー desutenī "destiny"; デジタル dejitaru "digital"; アイデア aidea "idea"; メッセージ messēji "message"; ガレージ garēji "garage"; ダメージ damēji "damage"; カレッジ karejji "college"; チョコレート chokorēto "chocolate"; パレス paresu "palace"; アルティメット arutimetto "ultimate"; ネッカチーフ nekkachīfu "neckerchief" | |||
/ɪə(ɹ)/ | /ɪɹ/ | ⟨aer⟩; ⟨e're⟩; ⟨ear⟩; ⟨eer⟩; ⟨er⟩; ⟨ere⟩; ⟨ier⟩; ⟨ir⟩ | iar; iyar; īr; ir; ear | ia; iya; īa; ea | ギア gia "gear"; ミーアキャット mīakyatto "meerkat"; イヤホン iyahon "earphone"; ヒーロー hīrō "hero"; ヒロイン hiroin "heroine"; ステアリング sutearingu "steering" | |
/i/ | ⟨e⟩; ⟨ea⟩; ⟨ee⟩; ⟨ei⟩; ⟨y⟩ | i; ī; yi; ē | コミッティーkomittī "committee"; ヤンキー Yankī "Yankee"; シティーshiti "city"; コメディkomedi, コメディーkomedī "comedy"; アポストロフィaposutorofi "apostrophe"; ハッピー happī, ハッピィ happyi "happy"; キャンディkyandi, キャンディーkyandī, キャンデー kyandē "candy" | |||
⟨ay⟩; ⟨ey⟩ | ī; ē; ei; e | マリー Marī, マーレイ Mārei "Murray"; リンジー Rinjī "Lindsay"; ハービー Hābī "Harvey"; ハーレー Hārē "Harley"; ラムゼイ Ramuzei "Ramsay"; ハネムーン hanemūn, ハニームーン hanīmūn "honeymoon" | ||||
/iː/ | ⟨ae⟩; ⟨e⟩; ⟨ea⟩; ⟨ee⟩; ⟨i⟩; ⟨ie⟩; ⟨oe⟩ | ī; ē; e | チーム chīmu "team"; グリーン gurīn "green"; ピース pīsu "piece", "peace"; タキシード takishīdo "tuxedo"; デーモン dēmon "demon"; ノルウェージャン Noruwējan "Norwegian"; ハイエナ haiena "hyena"; フェニックス fenikkusu "phoenix" | |||
/j/ | ⟨y⟩ | y; i | ヤング yangu "young"; ヨーク Yōku "York"; イェール Yēru "Yale"; イエロー ierō, イエロウ ierou "yellow"; イエス iesu "yes" | |||
/ju(ː)/; /jʊ/ | /ju(ː)/; /jə/ | ⟨eu⟩; ⟨u⟩; ⟨you⟩; ⟨yu⟩; ⟨ut⟩ | yū; yu | ユーyū "you", "U"; ユニオン yunion "union"; ダブリューdaburyū "W"; サミュエル Samyueru "Samuel"; フォーミュラ fōmyura "formula" | ||
/jʊə(ɹ)/; /jəɹ/ | /jʊɹ/; /jəɹ/ | ⟨eu(r)⟩; ⟨u(r)⟩; ⟨you(r)⟩; ⟨you're⟩; ⟨yu(r)⟩; ⟨uh(r)⟩ | yūr; yur; yuar | yua | ユーロ yūro "euro"; ユアyua "your", "you're"; マーキュリー Mākyurī "Mercury" | |
/k/ | ⟨c⟩; ⟨cc⟩; ⟨ch⟩; ⟨che⟩; ⟨ck⟩; ⟨k⟩; ⟨ke⟩; ⟨kh⟩; ⟨qu⟩; ⟨que⟩ | k | k; kk | ku; kku; ki; kki | カップ kappu "cup"; キックkikku "kick"; テイクteiku "take"; ストライキsutoraiki "strike"; ケーキkēki "cake"; ステーキsutēki "steak"; デッキdekki "deck"; クラウン kuraun "clown"; サッカー sakkā "soccer", "sucker"; クロニクル kuronikuru "chronicle" | |
/kæ/ | ⟨ca⟩; ⟨cha⟩; ⟨ka⟩ | ka; kya | カンザス Kanzasu "Kansas"; カメラ kamera "camera"; キャメロン Kyameron "Cameron"; キャンディー kyandī "candy"; キャプテン kyaputen "captain" | |||
/ks/ | ⟨cc⟩; ⟨cs⟩; ⟨chs⟩; ⟨cks⟩; ⟨ks⟩; ⟨khs⟩; ⟨x⟩; ⟨xe⟩ | kus; kkus; kis; kish | kkusu; kisu | メキシコ Mekishiko "Mexico"; テキサス Tekisasu "Texas"; テキスト tekisuto "text"; プロキシ purokishi "proxy"; タキシード takishīdo "tuxedo"; シックスshikkusu "six", "sicks"; コンプレックスkonpurekkusu "complex" | ||
/kʃ/ | ⟨cti⟩; ⟨xi⟩ | kush | コネクション konekushon "connection", "connexion" | |||
/kʃuəl/ | ⟨xual⟩ | kusharu; kushuaru | バイセクシャルbaisekusharu, バイセクシュアルbaisekushuaru "bisexual" | |||
/kw/ | ⟨cho⟩; ⟨cqu⟩; ⟨qu⟩ | ku; kuw; kw; k | クオーク kuōku, クォーク kwōku "quark"; クイーン kuīn, クィーン kwīn "queen"; クワイア kuwaia "choir"; スコール sukōru "squall"; ターコイズ tākoizu "turquoise" | |||
/l/ | ⟨l⟩; ⟨le⟩; ⟨ll⟩ | r | r | ru | ループ rūpu "loop"; ボールbōru "ball"; ブリー burī "bully" | |
/m/ | ⟨m⟩; ⟨mb⟩; ⟨me⟩; ⟨mm⟩; ⟨mn⟩ | m | m; nm | mu; n | メイ Mei "May"; サモン samon "summon"; ゲームgēmu "game"; ランプ ranpu "lamp", "lump", "ramp", "rump"; ナンバー nanbā "number"; ガンマ ganma "gamma"; ボムbomu "bomb"; オータムōtamu "autumn" | |
/n/ | ⟨n⟩; ⟨nd⟩; ⟨ne⟩; ⟨nn⟩ | n | n; nn | n; nu | ナインnain "nine"; ファンfan "fan"; バナナ banana "banana"; アンナ Anna "Anna"; エヌenu "N"; カンニング kanningu "cunning"; ハンサム hansamu "handsome"; ハンカチーフ hankachīfu "handkerchief" | |
/nju(ː)/ | /nu(ː)/ | ⟨new⟩; ⟨neu⟩; ⟨nu⟩ | nyū | ニューnyū "new"; ニュートロン nyūtoron "neutron" | ||
/njʊə(ɹ)/ | /nʊɹ/ | ⟨newr⟩; ⟨neur⟩; ⟨nur⟩; ⟨nure⟩ | nyūr | ニューロン nyūron "neuron" | ||
/ŋ/; /ŋɡ/ | ⟨n⟩; ⟨ng⟩ | ng | n; ngu | シンガー singā "singer"; フィンガー fingā "finger"; リンク rinku "link"; リングringu "ring"; バーミンガム Bāmingamu, バーミングハム Bāminguhamu "Birmingham"; チューインガム chūin gamu "chewing gum"; ワシントン Washinton "Washington"; ブーメランbūmeran "boomerang" | ||
/ɔː/ | ⟨al⟩; ⟨au⟩; ⟨aw⟩; ⟨oa⟩; ⟨ough⟩ | ō; ou; o | トーク tōku "talk"; オーストリア Ōsutoria "Austria"; クロー kurō, クロウ kurou "claw", "craw"; ストロー sutorō "straw"; ストロベリー sutoroberī "strawberry" | |||
/ɔːl/ | ⟨al⟩; ⟨aul⟩; ⟨awl⟩ | ōr | ōru; oru; aru | クローラー kuōrā "crawler"; オルタナティブ orutanatibu "alternative"; ワルツ warutsu "waltz"; アサルト asaruto "assault" | ||
/ɔː(ɹ)/ | /ɔːɹ/ | ⟨ar⟩; ⟨aur⟩; ⟨oar⟩; ⟨or⟩; ⟨our⟩; ⟨wor⟩ | ō(r); oru; oa; ā | ボード bōdo "board"; コース kōsu "course"; フォーfō "four"; ストーム sutōmu "storm"; トルネード torunēdo "tornado"; ボーテックス bōtekkusu, ボルテックス borutekkusu "vortex"; ノルウェー Noruwē "Norway"; ウォーwō "war"; オアoa "or", "oar"; ダイナソー dainasō, ダイノソー dainosō "dinosaur"; コーラス kōrasu "chorus"; ソード sōdo "sword"; ワープ wāpu "warp"; ホグワーツ Hoguwātsu "Hogwarts" | ||
⟨oor⟩; ⟨ore⟩ | oa | コア koa "core"; フォアfoa "fore"; ドア doa "door"; フロア furoa "floor" | ||||
/ɔɪ/ | ⟨eu⟩; ⟨oi⟩; ⟨oy⟩ | oi | コイン koin "coin"; トイ toi "toy" Exception: ボーイ bōi "boy" | |||
/ɔɪə(ɹ)/ | ⟨awyer⟩ | oiyā | ロイヤー roiyā "lawyer" | |||
/ɔɪəl/ | ⟨oyal⟩ | oiyaru | ロイヤル roiyaru "royal", "loyal" | |||
/p/ | ⟨p⟩; ⟨pe⟩; ⟨ph⟩; ⟨pp⟩ | p | p; pp | pu; ppu | パック pakku "pack"; トップtoppu "top"; プランクトン purankuton "plankton"; プルーフ purūfu "proof" | |
/ɹ/; /(ɹ)/ | /ɹ/ | ⟨lo⟩; ⟨r⟩; ⟨re⟩; ⟨rh⟩; ⟨rps⟩; ⟨rr⟩; ⟨rt⟩ | r | r | omitted; ru | ラム ramu "ram", "RAM", "rum"; テリー Terī "Terry"; リズム rizumu "rhythm"; バー bā "bar"; カリフォルニア Kariforunia "California"; アールāru "R", "are" |
/ˌɹiːˌɪ/ | ⟨rei⟩ | rii; ryi; ri | リインカーネーション riinkānēshon , リィンカーネーション ryinkānēshon, リンカーネーション rinkānēshon, リンカーネイション rinkāneishon, リンカネーション rinkanēshon "reincarnation" | |||
/s/ | ⟨'s⟩; ⟨c⟩; ⟨ce⟩; ⟨s⟩; ⟨s'⟩; ⟨sc⟩; ⟨se⟩; ⟨ss⟩; ⟨st⟩; ⟨sw⟩ | s; sh | s; ss; sh; ssh | su; ssu | サンド sando "sand"; シンク shinku "sink", "cinque"; メッセンジャー messenjā "messenger"; ケーシング kēshingu "casing"; キスkisu, キッスkissu "kiss"; キャッスル kyassuru "castle"; ストップ sutoppu "stop"; スラッシュ surasshu "slash"; セント sento "cent"; マッスル massuru "muscle"; クリスマスKurisumasu "Christmas" Exception: シチュー shichū "stew" | |
/sjuː/ | /suː/ | ⟨su⟩ | shū | コンシューマー konshūmā "consumer" | ||
/ʃ/ | ⟨ch⟩; ⟨che⟩; ⟨ci⟩; ⟨s⟩; ⟨sc⟩; ⟨sch⟩; ⟨sh⟩; ⟨si⟩; ⟨sti⟩; ⟨ti⟩ | sh | sh; ssh | shu; sshu | シップ shippu "ship"; クラッシャー kurasshā "crusher"; フラッシュfurasshu "flash", "flush"; シュラウド shuraudo "shroud"; ディメンション dimenshon "dimension"; アクション akushon "action"; イグニッション igunisshon "ignition"; スペシャル supesharu "special" | |
/ʃuəl/ | ⟨sual⟩ | sharu; shuaru | コンセンシャルkonsensharu "consensual" | |||
/t/ | ⟨bt⟩; ⟨ct⟩; ⟨pt⟩; ⟨t⟩; ⟨te⟩; ⟨th⟩; ⟨tt⟩; ⟨tte⟩ | t; ch; ts | t; tt; ts | to; tto; tsu; ttsu; do | テープ tēpu "tape"; インフィニティ infiniti "infinity"; チップ chippu "tip"; チーム chīmu "team"; スチーム suchīmu "steam"; チケットchiketto, ティケットtiketto, テケツteketsu "ticket"; ツアー tsuā "tour"; ツー tsū, トゥー tū "two", "to"; タイタン Taitan "Titan"; スケートsukēto "skate"; ヒッティング hittingu "hitting"; カートゥーン kātūn "cartoon"; キャットkyatto, キャッツkyattsu "cat"; シャツshatsu "shirt"; ピーナッツpīnattsu, ピーナツpīnatsu, ピーナットpīnatto "peanut"; フルーツfurūtsu "fruit"; スーツsūtsu, スート sūto "suit"; トランプ torampu "trump"; バトル batoru "battle"; テムズ Temuzu, テームズ Tēmuzu "Thames"; コネチカットKonechikatto "Connecticut"; アドバンストadobansuto, アドバンスドadobansudo "advanced" | |
/tjuː/ | /tuː/ | ⟨tew⟩; ⟨tu⟩; ⟨tue⟩ | chū; chuw; tyū | チューナー chūnā "tuner"; チューバ chūba, テューバ tyūba "tuba"; スチュワード suchuwādo "steward"; チューズデー Chūzudē "Tuesday" | ||
/ts/ | ⟨t's⟩; ⟨ts⟩; ⟨tts⟩ | tsu; ttsu | キャッツkyattsu "cats"; イッツittsu "it's", "its" | |||
/tʃ/ | ⟨ch⟩; ⟨tch⟩ | ch | ch; tch | chi; tchi | チキン chikin, チケン chiken, チッケン chikken "chicken"; キチン kichin, キッチン kitchin, キッチェン kitchen "kitchen"; マッチmatchi "match" | |
/tʃʊə(ɹ)/ | /tʃʊɹ/ | ⟨ture⟩ | chua | マチュアmachua "mature" | ||
/tʃuəl/ | ⟨tual⟩ | charu; chuaru | バーチャルbācharu, バーチュアルbāchuaru "virtual" | |||
/θ/ | ⟨th⟩; ⟨the⟩ | s; sh | s; ss; sh; ssh; j | su; ssu | ソー Sō "Thor"; シーフ shīfu "thief"; バスルーム basurūmu "bathroom"; スレッド sureddo "thread"; ゴッサム Gossamu "Gotham"; アメシスト ameshisuto, アメジスト amejisuto "amethyst" | |
/ʊ/ | ⟨oo⟩; ⟨u⟩ | u | ブック bukku "book"; ブル buru "bull" | |||
/ʊə(ɹ)/; /ɔː(ɹ)/ | /ʊɹ/ | ⟨oor⟩; ⟨our⟩; ⟨ure⟩ | uar; ūr | ua; ūa; uā | ムーア mūa "moor"; シュア shua "sure"; ツアー tsuā "tour"; ツーリスト tsūrisuto "tourist"; ミズーリ Mizūri "Missouri" | |
/u(ː)/ | ⟨ew⟩; ⟨o⟩; ⟨oe⟩; ⟨oo⟩; ⟨ou⟩; ⟨ough⟩; ⟨ue⟩; ⟨ui⟩ | ū; u; yū | ドゥーdū "do"; コクーン kokūn "cocoon"; シュー shū "shoe"; スープ sūpu "soup"; スルー surū "through"; ブルーマー burūmā, ブルマー burumā "bloomer"; ジュース jūsu "juice"; ブイ bui "buoy"; クルー kurū "crew"; コークスクリューkōkusukuryū "corkscrew"; アンドリューAndoryū "Andrew" Exceptions: ドリトル Doritoru "Dolittle"; スタジオ sutajio "studio"; アコースティック akōsutikku "acoustic" | |||
/v/ | ⟨ph⟩; ⟨v⟩; ⟨ve⟩; ⟨w⟩ | b; v | b; v | bu; vu | バイキング Baikingu, ヴァイキング Vaikingu "Viking"; ラブrabu, ラヴravu "love"; スティーヴン Sutīvun "Stephen" | |
/ʌ/ | ⟨o⟩; ⟨oo⟩; ⟨ou⟩; ⟨u⟩ | a; o | マフィン mafin, マッフィン maffin "muffin"; ブラッド buraddo "blood"; プラス purasu "plus"; カミング kamingu "coming"; マンスリー mansurī "monthly"; パンチ panchi, ポンチ ponchi "punch"; コロンビア Koronbia "Columbia"; トンネル tonneru "tunnel"; フロント furonto "front"; モンク monku "monk"; モンキー monkī "monkey"; ロンドン Rondon "London" | |||
/w/ | ⟨w⟩; ⟨ou⟩ | u; w; omitted | u; w | グウェン Guwen "Gwen"; スウェーデン Suwēden "Sweden"; ウォーム wōmu "warm"; ワーム wāmu "worm"; ツイン tsuin "twin"; ジャガー jagā "jaguar"; ペンギン pengin "penguin"; ティンクル tinkuru "twinkle"; サンドイッチ sandoitchi, サンドウィッチ sandowitchi "sandwich"; セーター sētā "sweater"; アウェイクン aweikun, アウエイクン aueikun "awaken" | ||
⟨wh⟩ | how; ho; u; w | ホワイト howaito "white"; ホワッツ howattsu "what's"; ホエール hoēru "whale"; ホイール hoīru "wheel"; ホイップ hoippu, ウイップ uippu, ウィップ wippu "whip"; ウィート wīto "wheat" | ||||
/wʊ/ | ⟨wo⟩; ⟨woo⟩ | u; ū | ウッド uddo "wood"; ウーマン ūman "woman" | |||
/z/ | ⟨'s⟩; ⟨s⟩; ⟨sc⟩; ⟨se⟩; ⟨ss⟩; ⟨z⟩; ⟨ze⟩; ⟨zz⟩ | z; j | z; zz; j; jj | zu; zzu; su | ズーム zūmu "zoom"; ジッパー jippā "zipper"; ライジング raijingu "rising"; クレージ kurējī "crazy"; フェイズfeizu "phase"; パズル pazuru "puzzle"; ディジー dijī, ディズィー dizī "dizzy"; ポゼッション pozesshon "possession"; ミズーリ Mizūri "Missouri"; ニュースnyūsu "news"; ブルースburūsu "blues"; フェアリーズfearīzu, フェアリースfearīsu "fairies"; ゼット zetto, ズィ zi "Z" | |
/ʒ/ | ⟨g⟩; ⟨ge⟩; ⟨si⟩; ⟨ti⟩; ⟨zi⟩ | j | テレビジョン terebijon "television"; イクエージョン ikuējon "equation"; ブレージャーburējā "brazier" | |||
/ʒuəl/ | ⟨sual⟩ | juaru | ビジュアルbijuaru "visual" |
Hiragana is a Japanese syllabary, part of the Japanese writing system, along with katakana as well as kanji.
Katakana is a Japanese syllabary, one component of the Japanese writing system along with hiragana, kanji and in some cases the Latin script.
Kana are syllabaries used to write Japanese phonological units, morae. Such syllabaries include (1) the original kana, or magana, which were Chinese characters (kanji) used phonetically to transcribe Japanese, the most prominent magana system being man'yōgana (万葉仮名); the two descendants of man'yōgana, (2) hiragana, and (3) katakana. There are also hentaigana, which are historical variants of the now-standard hiragana. In current usage, 'kana' can simply mean hiragana and katakana.
In the linguistic study of written languages, a syllabary is a set of written symbols that represent the syllables or moras which make up words.
A mora is a basic timing unit in the phonology of some spoken languages, equal to or shorter than a syllable. For example, a short syllable such as ba consists of one mora (monomoraic), while a long syllable such as baa consists of two (bimoraic); extra-long syllables with three moras (trimoraic) are relatively rare. Such metrics are also referred to as syllable weight.
A phonemic orthography is an orthography in which the graphemes correspond to the language's phonemes. Natural languages rarely have perfectly phonemic orthographies; a high degree of grapheme–phoneme correspondence can be expected in orthographies based on alphabetic writing systems, but they differ in how complete this correspondence is. English orthography, for example, is alphabetic but highly nonphonemic; it was once mostly phonemic during the Middle English stage, when the modern spellings originated, but spoken English changed rapidly while the orthography was much more stable, resulting in the modern nonphonemic situation. On the contrary the Albanian, Serbian/Croatian/Bosnian/Montenegrin, Romanian, Italian, Turkish, Spanish, Finnish, Czech, Latvian, Esperanto, Korean and Swahili orthographic systems come much closer to being consistent phonemic representations.
A digraph or digram is a pair of characters used in the orthography of a language to write either a single phoneme, or a sequence of phonemes that does not correspond to the normal values of the two characters combined.
Polivanov system is a system of transliterating the Japanese language into Russian Cyrillic script, either to represent Japanese proper names or terms in Russian or as an aid to Japanese language learning in those languages. The system was developed by Yevgeny Polivanov in 1917.
In phonology, epenthesis means the addition of one or more sounds to a word, especially in the beginning syllable (prothesis) or in the ending syllable (paragoge) or in-between two syllabic sounds in a word. The word epenthesis comes from epi- "in addition to" and en- "in" and thesis "putting". Epenthesis may be divided into two types: excrescence for the addition of a consonant, and for the addition of a vowel, svarabhakti or alternatively anaptyxis. The opposite process, where one or more sounds are removed, is referred to as elision.
In an alphabetic writing system, a silent letter is a letter that, in a particular word, does not correspond to any sound in the word's pronunciation. In linguistics, a silent letter is often symbolised with a null sign U+2205∅EMPTY SET. Null is an unpronounced or unwritten segment. The symbol resembles the Scandinavian letter Ø and other symbols.
Japanese Braille is the braille script of the Japanese language. It is based on the original braille script, though the connection is tenuous. In Japanese it is known as tenji (点字), literally "dot characters". It transcribes Japanese more or less as it would be written in the hiragana or katakana syllabaries, without any provision for writing kanji.
The Japanese Sign Language syllabary is a system of manual kana used as part of Japanese Sign Language (JSL). It is a signary of 45 signs and 4 diacritics representing the phonetic syllables of the Japanese language. Signs are distinguished both in the direction they point, and in whether the palm faces the viewer or the signer. For example, the manual syllables na, ni, ha are all made with the first two fingers of the hand extended straight, but for na the fingers point down, for ni across the body, and for ha toward the viewer. The signs for te and ho are both an open flat hand, but in te the palm faces the viewer, and in ho it faces away.
A syllabic consonant or vocalic consonant is a consonant that forms a syllable on its own, like the m, n and l in some pronunciations of the English words rhythm, button and bottle. To represent it, the understroke diacritic in the International Phonetic Alphabet is used, ⟨U+0329◌̩COMBINING VERTICAL LINE BELOW⟩. It may be instead represented by an overstroke, ⟨U+030D◌̍COMBINING VERTICAL LINE ABOVE⟩ if the symbol that it modifies has a descender, such as in.
In the Japanese language, the gojūon (五十音, Japanese pronunciation:[ɡo(d)ʑɯꜜːoɴ], lit. "fifty sounds") is a traditional system ordering kana characters by their component phonemes, roughly analogous to alphabetical order. The "fifty" (gojū) in its name refers to the 5×10 grid in which the characters are displayed. Each kana, which may be a hiragana or katakana character, corresponds to one sound in Japanese. As depicted at the right using hiragana characters, the sequence begins with あ (a), い (i), う (u), え (e), お (o), then continues with か (ka), き (ki), く (ku), け (ke), こ (ko), and so on and so forth for a total of ten rows of five columns.
The sokuon is a Japanese symbol in the form of a small hiragana or katakana tsu. In less formal language, it is called chiisai tsu (小さいつ) or chiisana tsu (小さなつ), meaning "small tsu". It serves multiple purposes in Japanese writing.
Hindustani is the lingua franca of northern India and Pakistan, and through its two standardized registers, Hindi and Urdu, a co-official language of India and co-official and national language of Pakistan respectively. Phonological differences between the two standards are minimal.
The small group of Hachijō dialects, natively called Shima Kotoba, depending on classification, either are the most divergent form of Japanese, or comprise a branch of Japonic. Hachijō is currently spoken on two of the Izu Islands south of Tokyo as well as on the Daitō Islands of Okinawa Prefecture, which were settled from Hachijō-jima in the Meiji period. It was also previously spoken on the island of Hachijō-kojima, which is now abandoned. Based on the criterion of mutual intelligibility, Hachijō may be considered a distinct Japonic language, rather than a dialect of Japanese.
This article explains the phonology of Malay and Indonesian based on the pronunciation of Standard Malay, which is the official language of Brunei, Singapore and Malaysia, and Indonesian, which is the official language of Indonesia and a working language in Timor Leste. There are two main standards for Malay pronunciation, the Johor-Riau standard, used in Brunei and Malaysia, and the Baku, used in Indonesia and Singapore.
Foreign words when used in Korean undergoes transcription, to make them pronounceable and memorable. Transcription into Korean, for the most part, is very similar to or even influenced by transcription into Japanese, although the number of homophones resulted by imperfect mapping of foreign sounds onto native sounds is significantly smaller, as Korean has a larger phoneme inventory and a more inclusive phonotactics.