Trichoderma longibrachiatum

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Trichoderma longibrachiatum
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Fungi
Division: Ascomycota
Class: Sordariomycetes
Order: Hypocreales
Family: Hypocreaceae
Genus: Trichoderma
Species:
T. longibrachiatum
Binomial name
Trichoderma longibrachiatum
Rifai  [ id; jv ] (1969) [1]

Trichoderma longibrachiatum is a fungus in the genus Trichoderma . In addition to being a distinct species, T. longibrachiatum also typifies one of several clades within Trichoderma which comprises 21 different species. [2] Trichoderma longibrachiatum is a soil fungus which is found all over the world but mainly in warmer climates. [2] Many species from this clade have been adopted in various industries because of their ability to secrete large amounts of protein and metabolites.

Contents

Taxonomy and nomenclature

Trichoderma is a diverse genus with other 135 species in Europe alone. [3] This species was first characterized by Mien Rifai in 1969. [2] It is an exclusively anamorphic species complex allied with the sexual species, Hypocrea schweinitzii. [4] Evolutionarily T. longibrachiatum is the youngest clade of Trichoderma. [4]

Growth and morphology

Trichoderma longibrachiatum is a fast-growing fungus. [5] It typically produces off-white colonies that change to greyish green with age. [5] This species is able to grow over a wide range of temperature; however the optimal temperature for growth is ≥ 35 °C. [2] Trichoderma longibrachiatum is a clonal species that reproduces through 1-celled, smooth-walled conidia. [5]

Metabolism

Trichoderma longibrachiatum occurs commonly on decaying plant material where its ecological role ranges from that of a strict saprotroph to a parasite of other saprotrophic fungi. [2] Trichoderma longibrachiatum uses cellulases to digest cellulose from decaying plant biomass, and chitinases to digest the chitinous walls of other fungi. [6] It is also able to digest proteins with the aid of aspartic proteases, serine proteases, and metalloproteases. [6] Trichoderma longibrachiatum produces many secondary metabolites including: peptaibols, polyketides, pyrones, terpenes and diketopiperazine-like compounds. [7]

Distribution and habitat

Trichoderma longibrachiatum is a soil fungus often found on dead wood, other fungi, building material and sometimes animals. [4]

Toxicity

Trichoderma longibrachiatum is not thought to pose risk to human health, although it has been isolated as an indoor contaminant with high allergenic potential. [4] This species has also been implicated in the colonization of immunocompromised people [6] and has been found in the blood cultures derived from a neutropenic patient with lymphoma, bone marrow transplant patients, and patients with severe chronic kidney disease. [8]

Trichoderma longibrachiatum, produces small toxic peptides containing amino acids not found in common proteins, like alpha-aminoisobutyric acid, called trilongins (up to 10% w/w). Their toxicity is due to absorption into cells and production of nano-channels that obstruct vital ion channels that ferry potassium and sodium ions across the cell membrane. This affects in the cells action potential profile, as seen in cardiomyocytes, pneumocytes and neurons leading to conduction defects. Trilongins are highly resistant to heat and antimicrobials making primary prevention the only management option. [9] [10] [11]

Industrial use

Trichoderma species are useful in industry because of their high capacity to secrete large amounts of protein and metabolites. It has been suggested that Trichoderma longibrachiatum could be used as a biocontrol agent for its parasitic and lethal effects on the cysts of the nematode Heterodera avenae . [12] Because T. longibrachiatum is a mycoparasite, it has also been investigated for use in combating fungal diseases on agricultural crops. [7] Its enzymatic capacity could potentially be useful in bioremediation, for use in remediation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and heavy metals. [13] Other industrial uses include using the various cellulases for staining fabrics in the textile industry, increasing digestibility of poultry feed, and potentially in the generation of biofuels. [14] Trichoderma longibrachiatum has also been reported in promoting plant growth by increasing nutrient uptake, inhibiting the growth of plant parasites, increasing carbohydrate metabolism, and phytohormone synthesis.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chitinase</span> Enzymes which degrade or break chitin

Chitinases are hydrolytic enzymes that break down glycosidic bonds in chitin. They catalyse the following reaction:

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Exoenzyme</span> Exoenzyme

An exoenzyme, or extracellular enzyme, is an enzyme that is secreted by a cell and functions outside that cell. Exoenzymes are produced by both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells and have been shown to be a crucial component of many biological processes. Most often these enzymes are involved in the breakdown of larger macromolecules. The breakdown of these larger macromolecules is critical for allowing their constituents to pass through the cell membrane and enter into the cell. For humans and other complex organisms, this process is best characterized by the digestive system which breaks down solid food via exoenzymes. The small molecules, generated by the exoenzyme activity, enter into cells and are utilized for various cellular functions. Bacteria and fungi also produce exoenzymes to digest nutrients in their environment, and these organisms can be used to conduct laboratory assays to identify the presence and function of such exoenzymes. Some pathogenic species also use exoenzymes as virulence factors to assist in the spread of these disease-causing microorganisms. In addition to the integral roles in biological systems, different classes of microbial exoenzymes have been used by humans since pre-historic times for such diverse purposes as food production, biofuels, textile production and in the paper industry. Another important role that microbial exoenzymes serve is in the natural ecology and bioremediation of terrestrial and marine environments.

<i>Trichoderma viride</i> Species of fungus

Trichoderma viride is a fungus and a biofungicide.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gliotoxin</span> Chemical compound

Gliotoxin is a sulfur-containing mycotoxin that belongs to a class of naturally occurring 2,5-diketopiperazines produced by several species of fungi, especially those of marine origin. It is the most prominent member of the epipolythiopiperazines, a large class of natural products featuring a diketopiperazine with di- or polysulfide linkage. These highly bioactive compounds have been the subject of numerous studies aimed at new therapeutics. Gliotoxin was originally isolated from Gliocladium fimbriatum, and was named accordingly. It is an epipolythiodioxopiperazine metabolite that is one of the most abundantly produced metabolites in human invasive Aspergillosis (IA).

<i>Trichoderma reesei</i> Species of fungus

Trichoderma reesei is a mesophilic and filamentous fungus. It is an anamorph of the fungus Hypocrea jecorina. T. reesei can secrete large amounts of cellulolytic enzymes. Microbial cellulases have industrial application in the conversion of cellulose, a major component of plant biomass, into glucose.

<i>Trichoderma</i> Genus of fungi

Trichoderma is a genus of fungi in the family Hypocreaceae that is present in all soils, where they are the most prevalent culturable fungi. Many species in this genus can be characterized as opportunistic avirulent plant symbionts. This refers to the ability of several Trichoderma species to form mutualistic endophytic relationships with several plant species. The genomes of several Trichoderma specieshave been sequenced and are publicly available from the JGI.

Acremonium strictum is an environmentally widespread saprotroph species found in soil, plant debris, and rotting mushrooms. Isolates have been collected in North and Central America, Asia, Europe and Egypt. A. strictum is an agent of hyalohyphomycosis and has been identified as an increasingly frequent human pathogen in immunosuppressed individuals, causing localized, disseminated and invasive infections. Although extremely rare, A. strictum can infect immunocompetent individuals, as well as neonates. Due to the growing number of infections caused by A. strictum in the past few years, the need for new medical techniques in the identification of the fungus as well as for the treatment of human infections has risen considerably.

<i>Ophiocordyceps unilateralis</i> Species of fungus

Ophiocordyceps unilateralis, commonly known as zombie-ant fungus, is an insect-pathogenic fungus, discovered by the British naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace in 1859, and currently found predominantly in tropical forest ecosystems. O. unilateralis infects ants of the tribe Camponotini, with the full pathogenesis being characterized by alteration of the behavioral patterns of the infected ant. Infected hosts leave their canopy nests and foraging trails for the forest floor, an area with a temperature and humidity suitable for fungal growth; they then use their mandibles to attach themselves to a major vein on the underside of a leaf, where the host remains after its eventual death. The process, leading up to mortality, takes 4–10 days, and includes a reproductive stage where fruiting bodies grow from the ant's head, rupturing to release the fungus's spores. O. unilateralis is, in turn, also susceptible to fungal infection itself, an occurrence that can limit its impact on ant populations, which has otherwise been known to devastate ant colonies.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fungivore</span> Organism that consumes fungi

Fungivory or mycophagy is the process of organisms consuming fungi. Many different organisms have been recorded to gain their energy from consuming fungi, including birds, mammals, insects, plants, amoebas, gastropods, nematodes, bacteria and other fungi. Some of these, which only eat fungi, are called fungivores whereas others eat fungi as only part of their diet, being omnivores.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fungus</span> Biological kingdom, separate from plants and animals

A fungus is any member of the group of eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms such as yeasts and molds, as well as the more familiar mushrooms. These organisms are classified as one of the traditional eukaryotic kingdoms, along with Animalia, Plantae and either Protista or Protozoa and Chromista.

Chaetomium cupreum is a fungus in the family Chaetomiaceae. It is able to decay in manufactured cellulosic materials, and is known to antagonize a wide range of soil microorganisms. This species is component of the biocontrol agent, Ketomium, a commercial biofungicide. It has also been investigated for use in the production of natural dyes. Chaetomium cupreum is mesophilic and known to occur in harsh environments and can rapidly colonize organic substrates in soil. Laboratory cultures of C. cupreum can be propagated on a range of common growth media including potato dextrose at ambient or higher than ambient temperature producing cottony white colonies with a reddish reverse.

<i>Podostroma cornu-damae</i> Species of fungus

Podostroma cornu-damae, also known as the poison fire coral, is a species of fungus in the family Hypocreaceae. The fruit bodies of the fungus are highly toxic, and have been responsible for several fatalities in Japan. The fungus contains several trichothecene mycotoxins.

Peptaibols are biologically active peptides containing between seven and twenty amino acid residues, some of which are non-proteinogenic amino acids. In particular, they contain α-aminoisobutyric acid along with other unusual aminoacids such as ethylnorvaline, isovaline and hydroxyproline; the N-terminus is acetylated, and the C-terminal amino acid is hydroxylated to an acid alcohol. They are named pebtaibols due to them being peptides containing α-aminoisobutyric acid (Aib) and ending in an alcohol. They are produced by certain fungi, mainly in the genus Trichoderma, as secondary metabolites which function as antibiotics and antifungal agents. Some are referred to as trichorzianines. They are amphipathic which allows them to form voltage-dependent ion channels in cell membranes which create holes in the membrane making them leaky and leading to the death of the cells. As of 2001, over 317 peptaibols had been identified. The most widely known peptaibol is alamethicin.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Marine fungi</span> Species of fungi that live in marine or estuarine environments

Marine fungi are species of fungi that live in marine or estuarine environments. They are not a taxonomic group, but share a common habitat. Obligate marine fungi grow exclusively in the marine habitat while wholly or sporadically submerged in sea water. Facultative marine fungi normally occupy terrestrial or freshwater habitats, but are capable of living or even sporulating in a marine habitat. About 444 species of marine fungi have been described, including seven genera and ten species of basidiomycetes, and 177 genera and 360 species of ascomycetes. The remainder of the marine fungi are chytrids and mitosporic or asexual fungi. Many species of marine fungi are known only from spores and it is likely a large number of species have yet to be discovered. In fact, it is thought that less than 1% of all marine fungal species have been described, due to difficulty in targeting marine fungal DNA and difficulties that arise in attempting to grow cultures of marine fungi. It is impracticable to culture many of these fungi, but their nature can be investigated by examining seawater samples and undertaking rDNA analysis of the fungal material found.

Throughout human history, fungi have been utilized as a source of food and harnessed to ferment and preserve foods and beverages. In the 20th century, humans have learned to harness fungi to protect human health, while industry has utilized fungi for large scale production of enzymes, acids, and biosurfactants. With the advent of modern nanotechnology in the 1980s, fungi have remained important by providing a greener alternative to chemically synthesized nanoparticle.

Cladosporium oxysporum is an airborne fungus that is commonly found outdoors and is distributed throughout the tropical and subtropical region, it is mostly located In Asia and Africa. It spreads through airborne spores and is often extremely abundant in outdoor air during the spring and summer seasons. It mainly feeds on decomposing organic matter in warmer climates, but can also be parasitic and feed on living plants. The airborne spores can occasionally cause cutaneous infections in humans, and the high prevalence of C. oxysporum in outdoor air during warm seasons contributes to its importance as an etiological agent of allergic disease and possibly human cutaneous phaeohyphomycosis in tropical regions.

A mycoparasite is an organism with the ability to parasitize fungi.

<i>Trichoderma koningii</i> Species of fungus

Trichoderma koningii is a very common soil dwelling saprotroph with a worldwide distribution. It has been heavily exploited for agricultural use as an effective biopesticide, having been frequently cited as an alternative biological control agent in the regulation of fungi-induced plant diseases. They are endosymbionts associated with plant root tissues, exhibiting mycoparasitism and promoting plant growth due to their capacity to produce different secondary metabolites.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Halovir</span> Group of chemical compounds

Halovir refers to a multi-analogue compound belonging to a group of oligopeptides designated as lipopeptaibols which have membrane-modifying capacity and are fungal in origin. These peptides display interesting microheterogeneity; slight variation in encoding amino acids gives rise to a mixture of closely related analogues and have been shown to have antibacterial/antiviral properties.

<i>Trichoderma atroviride</i> Species of fungus

Trichoderma atroviride is a filamentous fungal species commonly found in the soil. This fungal species is of particular interest to researchers due to the plethora of secondary metabolites it makes which are used in industry The genus Trichoderma is known for its ubiquity in almost all soils and being easy to culture. Many Trichoderma's are also avirulent plant symbionts.

References

  1. ↑ "Trichoderma longibrachiatum". MycoBank.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 Samuels, Gary J.; Ismaiel, Adnan; Mulaw, Temesgen B.; Szakacs, George; Druzhinina, Irina S.; Kubicek, Christian P.; Jaklitsch, Walter M. (5 February 2012). "The Longibrachiatum Clade of Trichoderma: a revision with new species". Fungal Diversity. 55 (1): 77–108. doi:10.1007/s13225-012-0152-2. PMC   3432902 . PMID   22956918.
  3. ↑ Jaklitsch, Walter M. (15 March 2011). "European species of Hypocrea part II: species with hyaline ascospores". Fungal Diversity. 48 (1): 1–250. doi:10.1007/s13225-011-0088-y. PMC   3189789 . PMID   21994484.
  4. 1 2 3 4 Druzhinina, Irina S.; Komoń-Zelazowska, Monika; Ismaiel, Adnan; Jaklitsch, Walter; Mullaw, Temesgen; Samuels, Gary J.; Kubicek, Christian P. (2012). "Molecular phylogeny and species delimitation in the section Longibrachiatum of Trichoderma". Fungal Genetics and Biology. 49 (5): 358–368. doi:10.1016/j.fgb.2012.02.004. PMC   3350856 . PMID   22405896.
  5. 1 2 3 de Hoog, G.S. (2000). Atlas of clinical fungi (2. ed.). Utrecht: Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures [u.a.] ISBN   978-9070351434.
  6. 1 2 3 Xie, B.-B.; Qin, Q.-L.; Shi, M.; Chen, L.-L.; Shu, Y.-L.; Luo, Y.; Wang, X.-W.; Rong, J.-C.; Gong, Z.-T.; Li, D.; Sun, C.-Y.; Liu, G.-M.; Dong, X.-W.; Pang, X.-H.; Huang, F.; Liu, W.; Chen, X.-L.; Zhou, B.-C.; Zhang, Y.-Z.; Song, X.-Y. (29 January 2014). "Comparative Genomics Provide Insights into Evolution of Trichoderma Nutrition Style". Genome Biology and Evolution. 6 (2): 379–390. doi:10.1093/gbe/evu018. PMC   3942035 . PMID   24482532.
  7. 1 2 Biotechnology and Biology of Trichoderma. Elsevier Science Ltd. 2014. ISBN   9780444595768.
  8. ↑ Howard, Dexter H., ed. (2003). Pathogenic fungi in humans and animals (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Dekker. ISBN   978-0824706838.
  9. ↑ Reason Discovered for the Toxicity of Indoor Mould – ScienceDaily (Oct. 12, 2012) : https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/10/121012074655.htm
  10. ↑ 20-Residue and 11-residue peptaibols from the fungus Trichoderma longibrachiatum are synergistic in forming Na+/K+-permeable channels and adverse action towards mammalian cells Raimo Mikkola1,†, Maria A. Andersson1,†, László Kredics2, Pavel A. Grigoriev1,3, Nina Sundell1, Mirja S. Salkinoja-Salonen1,* doi : 10.1111/febs.12010
  11. ↑ “Trilongins” Offer Insight into Mold Toxicity Archived 2016-03-11 at the Wayback Machine Environmental health perspectives 2/2013.
  12. ↑ Zhang, Shuwu; Gan, Yantai; Xu, Bingliang; Xue, Yingyu (2014). "The parasitic and lethal effects of Trichoderma longibrachiatum against Heterodera avenae". Biological Control. 72: 1–8. doi:10.1016/j.biocontrol.2014.01.009.
  13. ↑ Rosales, E.; Pérez-Paz, A.; Vázquez, X.; Pazos, M.; Sanromán, M. A. (15 December 2011). "Isolation of novel benzo[a]anthracene-degrading microorganisms and continuous bioremediation in an expanded-bed bioreactor". Bioprocess and Biosystems Engineering. 35 (5): 851–855. doi:10.1007/s00449-011-0669-x. PMID   22170303. S2CID   24999957.
  14. ↑ Maurer, S.A.; Brady, N.W.; Fajardo, N.P.; Radke, C.J. (2013). "Surface kinetics for cooperative fungal cellulase digestion of cellulose from quartz crystal microgravimetry". Journal of Colloid and Interface Science. 394: 498–508. doi:10.1016/j.jcis.2012.12.022. PMID   23347999.
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