United States bases in the Philippines | |
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United States military bases were established in the Philippines on the basis of a treaty signed after the conclusion of World War II and the recognition of Philippine independence by the US. The bases established under that treaty were discontinued in 1991 and 1992, after the senate of the Philippines narrowly rejected a new treaty which would have allowed some of the bases to continue for another ten years. [1] This article summarizes the collective history of those bases.
From 1988 to 1992, the US government and Philippine government began intense negotiations to renegotiate the terms of an extension of the military bases at Subic and Clark, because the MBA of 1947 was due to expire. [16] One bone of contention on the part of the negotiators was the amount of money that the US government would pay to the Philippine government for the lease and use of the bases, [17] but the bases had also become a political liability for the Aquino government, with the Los Angeles Times noting that "many Filipinos denounce the bases as an affront to Philippine sovereignty, remnants of American paternalism and colonialism." [18]
In July 1991, the US and Philippine negotiators drafted a new agreement titled the Treaty of Friendship, Peace and Cooperation between the two countries, proposing the clean-up and turn over of Clark to the Philippine government in 1992, and extending the lease of Subic Bay Naval Base by the US for ten years. [19] [20]
The eruption of Mount Pinatubo in June 1991 influenced the United States' decision to abandon the nearby Clark Air Base, which was heavily damaged by ash emissions and lahar flows. [21] An emergency evacuation of all non-essential military and U.S. Department of Defense civilian personnel and their dependents from Clark Air Base and U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay ensued. [22]
On September 16, 1991, the Philippine Senate rejected renewal of the bases agreement by a slim margin. [23] [16] The vote resulted in 11 senators in favor of extending the treaty, and 12 senators in favor of suppressing it. The list of senators who voted for the bases treaty - to retain the bases - were Mamintal Tamano, Neptali Gonzales Sr., Heherson Alvarez, Edgardo Angara, Ernesto Herrera, Jose Lina Jr., John Osmeña, Vicente Paterno, Santanina Rasul, Alberto Romulo and Leticia Ramos Shahani. The Anti-Bases Coalition, founded by senators Jose W. Diokno and Lorenzo Tañada led the call to end American military presence in the country. At the time of the vote, the retired senator Tañada stood up on his wheelchair to rapturous applause shouting, "Mabuhay!" or "Long live the Philippines." [24]
Voted to extend | Voted against extending |
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Despite further efforts by the Aquino administration to salvage the treaty, the two sides could not reach a new agreement. As a result, the Philippine Government informed the US on December 6, 1991, that it would have one year to complete withdrawal. [23] [16]
On 26 November 1991, the US government formally turned Clark over to the Philippine government, [18] which transformed the airfield into Clark International Airport. The Subic Bay Naval base was deactivated in 1992. These were the two largest US military bases in the Philippines at the time, and other US bases were deactivated in this same time period, ending the US military presence in the Philippines.
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A dispute arose over toxic waste contamination in Clark Air Base and Subic Naval Base as soon as the US government turned over the bases to the Philippine government. [25] [26] At the time, U.S. government and United Nations reports confirming serious contamination at 46 locations in the two bases had come out. But the U.S. government determined that it was not legally responsible for the cleanup. [25] [26]
Various Philippine administrations have sought to get the US government to take responsibility for the cleanup of the wastes, but to no avail. [27] [28] [29]
While the end of the US Bases Treaty marked an end to permanent bases, and supposedly the end of permanent US military presence in the Philippines, the Philippines and the United States later signed a number of agreements for the purpose of facilitating bilateral military cooperation between the two countries. The most significant of these have been the Philippines–United States Visiting Forces Agreement which came into effect in May 1999; and the Enhanced Defense Cooperation Agreement which came into effect in April 2014.
On April 28, 2014, the Philippines and the US signed the Enhanced Defense Cooperation Agreement (EDCA), effective for a period of ten years and thereafter, unless terminated by either party by giving one year's written notice. This allowed US forces and contractors to operate out of "agreed locations" defined as "facilities and areas that are provided by the Government of the Philippines through the Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP)". [30]
In April 2015, the United States government asked for access to eight bases in the Philippines, including the formerly American Subic Bay Naval Base, and Clark Air Base, as well as locations in Luzon, Cebu, and Palawan. [31]
On 19 March 2016, the Philippines and the United States government agreed on 5 locations of military bases for the American troops under the EDCA: [32]
In November 2022, the Philippine Department of National Defense released a statement saying, "The Department is committed to accelerate the implementation of the Edca by concluding infrastructure enhancement and repair projects, developing new infrastructure projects at existing Edca locations, and exploring new locations that will build a more credible mutual defense posture". [33]
On 2 February 2023, four additional locations of military bases were designated under the EDCA. [34] On 3 April 2023, the locations of the four new EDCA sites were announced: [35]
The governors of Isabela and Cagayan, which together host three of the bases, expressed dismay at the agreement, stating they had not been consulted on the sites and did not want their provinces to pay too much for the infrastructure improvements or become potential targets of Chinese nuclear attack. [36]
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The establishment of the US bases, particularly of Fort Stotsenberg, Clark Airfield, Subic Bay, and John Hay, frequently resulted in the displacement and disenfranchisement of the Aeta and Ibaloi indigenous peoples who lived in the land, at a time when they were already facing pressures from the incursions of civilian lowlanders. [37] [38] None of these indigenous peoples were properly compensated at the time the bases were established, [37] [38] and they remain marginalized and unable to return to their historic lands today. [39]
Pampanga, officially the Province of Pampanga, is a province in the Central Luzon region of the Philippines. Lying on the northern shore of Manila Bay, Pampanga is bordered by Tarlac to the north, Nueva Ecija to the northeast, Bulacan to the east, Manila Bay to the central-south, Bataan to the southwest and Zambales to the west. Its capital is the City of San Fernando. Angeles City is the largest LGU, but while geographically within Pampanga, it is classified as a first-class, highly urbanized city and has been governed independently of the province since it received its charter in 1964.
Clark Air Base is a Philippine Air Force base on Luzon Island in the Philippines, located 3 miles (4.8 km) west of Angeles City, and about 40 miles (64 km) northwest of Metro Manila. Clark Air Base was previously a United States military facility, operated by the U.S. Air Force under the aegis of Pacific Air Forces (PACAF) and their predecessor organizations from 1903 to 1991. The base covered 14.3 square miles (37 km2) with a military reservation extending north that covered another 230 square miles (600 km2).
Olongapo, officially the City of Olongapo, is a 1st class highly urbanized city in the Central Luzon region of the Philippines. Located in the province of Zambales but governed independently from the province, it has a population of 260,317 people according to the 2020 census.
Angeles, officially the City of Angeles, is a 1st class highly urbanized city in the Central Luzon region of the Philippines. According to the 2020 census, it has a population of 462,928 people.
Clark International Airport, known as Diosdado Macapagal International Airport from 2003 to 2014, is an international airport covering portions of the cities of Angeles and Mabalacat within the Clark Freeport Zone in the province of Pampanga, Philippines. It is located 80 kilometers (50 mi) northwest of Manila. It is accessible by way of the Subic–Clark–Tarlac Expressway (SCTEX).
Subic Bay International Airport serves as a secondary and diversion airport for Ninoy Aquino International Airport in Metro Manila and Clark International Airport in Pampanga. It also serves the immediate area of the Subic Bay Freeport Zone, the provinces of Bataan and Zambales, and the general area of Olongapo in the Philippines.
The Commonwealth of the Philippines was attacked by the Empire of Japan on 8 December 1941, nine hours after the attack on Pearl Harbor. Although it was governed by a semi-independent commonwealth government, the United States of America controlled the Philippines at the time and possessed important military bases there. The combined Filipino-American army was defeated in the Battle of Bataan, which saw many war crimes committed and the Battle of Corregidor in April 1942, but guerrilla resistance against the Japanese continued throughout the war. Uncaptured Filipino army units, a communist insurgency, and supporting American agents all played a role in the resistance. Due to the huge number of islands, the Japanese never occupied many of the smaller and more minor islands. The Japanese control over the countryside and smaller towns were often tenuous at best.
The Subic Special Economic and Freeport Zone, often shortened as Subic Bay or Subic, is a special economic zone and freeport area covering portions of the city of Olongapo and the town of Subic in Zambales, and the towns of Hermosa and Morong in Bataan in the Philippines. The relatively developed and fenced area is called the Subic Bay Freeport Zone (SBFZ).
The Mutual Defense Treaty between the Republic of the Philippines and the United States of America (MDT) was signed on August 30, 1951 by their representatives in Washington, D.C. The treaty has eight articles and requires both nations to support each other if another party attacks the Philippines or the United States.
Cesar Basa Air Base, or simply Basa Air Base, is an airbase currently operated by the Philippine Air Force. It is located at Floridablanca, Pampanga about 40 miles (64 km) northwest of Metro Manila in the Philippines. It is named after César Basa, one of the pioneer fighter pilots of the Philippine Air Force.
The Treaty of Manila of 1946, formally the Treaty of General Relations and Protocol, is a treaty of general relations signed on July 4, 1946, in Manila, the capital of the Philippines. It relinquished U.S. sovereignty over the Philippines and recognized the independence of the Republic of the Philippines. The treaty was signed by High Commissioner Paul V. McNutt as representative of the United States and President Manuel Roxas as representative of the Philippines.
The Port of Subic Bay is in the Subic Bay Freeport Zone, the former U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay, on Subic Bay in the Philippines. It is one of the busiest, largest, historical and most important of ports in the Philippines. The Port is operated and managed by the Subic Bay Metropolitan Authority (SBMA).
The bilateral and diplomatic relations of the Republic of the Philippines and the United States of America has been historically strong. It is often described as a "special relationship," originating from the fact that the Philippines was a colony of the United States between 1898 and 1946. The former Philippine president Rodrigo Duterte, however, was supportive of a foreign policy that was less dependent on the United States, favoring one that prioritized closer relations with China and Russia, despite the Philippines and the U.S. having a mutual defense treaty dating from 1951 to the present. In 2014, the countries signed an enhanced defense cooperation agreement that began its first phase of implementation in 2019.
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to the Philippines:
The Philippine Air Force (PAF) is the aerial warfare service branch of the Armed Forces of the Philippines. Initially formed as part of the Philippine Army as the Philippine Army Air Corps (PAAC) in 1935, the PAAC eventually saw combat during World War 2 and was formally separated from the Army in 1947 as a separate service branch of the AFP under Executive Order No. 94. At present, the PAF is responsible for both defending Philippine airspace, and conducting aerial operations throughout the Philippines, such as close air support operations, combat air patrols, aerial reconnaissance missions, airlift operations, helicopter tactical operations, special operations, and aerial humanitarian operations, which includes search and rescue operations. The PAF has also carried out various missions within the country and abroad.
Naval Base Subic Bay was a major ship-repair, supply, and rest and recreation facility of the Spanish Navy and subsequently the United States Navy located in Zambales, Philippines. The base was 262 square miles (680 km2), about the size of Singapore. The Navy Exchange had the largest volume of sales of any exchange in the world, and the Naval Supply Depot handled the largest volume of fuel oil of any navy facility in the world. The naval base was the largest overseas military installation of the United States Armed Forces, after Clark Air Base in Angeles City was closed in 1991. Following its closure in 1992, it was transformed into the Subic Bay Freeport Zone by the Philippine government.
The Enhanced Defense Cooperation Agreement (EDCA) is an agreement between the United States and the Philippines intended to bolster the American–Philippine alliance. The agreement allows the United States to rotate troops into the Philippines for extended stays and allows the United States to build and operate facilities on Philippine bases for both American and Philippine forces. The U.S. is not allowed to establish any permanent military bases. The Philippines have personnel access to American ships and planes. This agreement has been the subject of criticism by some leftist groups in the Philippines.
Exercise Balikatan is the most prominent annual military exercise between the Philippines and the United States. The Tagalog word balikatan means "shoulder-to-shoulder". The exercises have been the cornerstone of Philippines–United States military relations since the closure of U.S. bases in the Philippines.
Jose Abad Santos Avenue (JASA), also known as the Olongapo–Gapan Road and the Gapan–San Fernando–Olongapo Road, is a two-to-thirteen-lane 118-kilometer (73 mi) major highway spanning the provinces of Bataan, Nueva Ecija, Pampanga, and Zambales in Central Luzon, Philippines. The highway is designated as National Route 3 (N3) of the Philippine highway network.
The United States Navy held a number of bases in the Philippines Islands in the Pacific Ocean. Most were built by the US Navy Seabees, Naval Construction Battalions, during World War II. The US Naval Bases in Philippines were lost to the Empire of Japan in December 1941 during the Philippines campaign of 1941–1942. In February 1945 the United States Armed Forces retook the Philippines in the Battle of Manila in 1945. Before the captured US bases on Luzon were retaken the US Navy Seabees built a new large base, Leyte-Samar Naval Base, on the Philippine Island of Leyte, starting in October 1944.
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