Urban consolidation

Last updated

Urban consolidation describes the policy of constraining further development and population growth to within the boundaries of preexisting urban areas rather than expanding outward into suburban areas. Urban consolidation seeks to increase the population density of a given urban area by expanding upward, redeveloping preexisting buildings and lots, and constructing new facilities in available spaces. It is theorized that discouraging urban sprawl and encouraging further development of housing units in preexisting urban areas will lead to a net gain in social and economic prosperity (e.g. more accessible public transportation, more efficient use of public utilities, and increased affordability of housing). [1]

Contents

A major feature of modern urban consolidation practices is the incorporation of urban green space and open space areas. In higher density environments, incorporating natural settings into the landscape design can have positive impacts, such as increased happiness, decreased stress, and a reduction in maintenance costs. [2] There are broadly three kinds of urban consolidation: Market-led consolidation of existing residential areas involves residential redevelopment of established dwellings as well as non-residential land and buildings at higher densities than the metropolitan average. Transit-oriented development involves high-density residential and mixed-use buildings within walkable precincts around public transport nodes, often referred to as activity centres. The third approach is to require that all new development on the urban fringe of existing metropolitan areas is at higher densities than the current average for those cities.

History

The term "urban consolidation" first appears in social science and urban planning literature around the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Much of the existing literature on urban consolidation comes from Australia; some of the world's first government-official urban consolidation policies were enacted in Sydney and Melbourne to increase construction of higher-density terrace housing in the late 19th century. [3] Throughout the 20th century, implementation of urban consolidation policies appears to come in 'waves', separated by population surges stemming from major events like World War I and II. Urban consolidation policies began to appear in the United States around the same time, with one of the earliest examples being a proposal for the consolidation of railroad lines in Iowa and Minnesota to increase the capacity and efficiency of existing passenger and freight traffic. [4]

Limits of urban consolidation

Although urban consolidation policies may have many positive social, economic, and environmental effects, there are limits to the extent of its benefits. Efficiency is a key feature of urban consolidation, but the aspect of infrastructure capacity is often overlooked. As a city's infrastructure is used by an increasing number of people, the systems must be upgraded and retrofitted, a process which can cost hundreds of millions of dollars. Falling under this category of 'capacity' are common features of civilization, such as roads, drainage systems, and open spaces. Roads in areas with urban consolidation policies are often overburdened with increased intercity traffic in addition to the preexisting suburban commuter traffic, and this problem is not always easily solved with transit-oriented development. Drainage systems are severely impacted by higher populations, potentially leading to increased flooding and pollutant runoff. Open spaces in high-density urban areas often conflict with urban consolidation policies; residents of high-density areas require a significantly higher amount of open space, but this would limit development of consolidation-oriented housing and transportation. [5]

Terminology

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Smart growth</span> Urban planning philosophy

Smart growth is an urban planning and transportation theory that concentrates growth in compact walkable urban centers to avoid sprawl. It also advocates compact, transit-oriented, walkable, bicycle-friendly land use, including neighborhood schools, complete streets, and mixed-use development with a range of housing choices. The term "smart growth" is particularly used in North America. In Europe and particularly the UK, the terms "compact city", "urban densification" or "urban intensification" have often been used to describe similar concepts, which have influenced government planning policies in the UK, the Netherlands and several other European countries.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Zoning</span> Government policy allowing certain uses of land in different places

Zoning is a method of urban planning in which a municipality or other tier of government divides land into areas called zones, each of which has a set of regulations for new development that differs from other zones. Zones may be defined for a single use, they may combine several compatible activities by use, or in the case of form-based zoning, the differing regulations may govern the density, size and shape of allowed buildings whatever their use. The planning rules for each zone determine whether planning permission for a given development may be granted. Zoning may specify a variety of outright and conditional uses of land. It may indicate the size and dimensions of lots that land may be subdivided into, or the form and scale of buildings. These guidelines are set in order to guide urban growth and development.

Urban sprawl is defined as "the spreading of urban developments on undeveloped land near a city." Urban sprawl has been described as the unrestricted growth in many urban areas of housing, commercial development, and roads over large expanses of land, with little concern for urban planning. In addition to describing a special form of urbanization, the term also relates to the social and environmental consequences associated with this development. Medieval suburbs suffered from the loss of protection of city walls, before the advent of industrial warfare. Modern disadvantages and costs include increased travel time, transport costs, pollution, and destruction of the countryside. The cost of building urban infrastructure for new developments is hardly ever recouped through property taxes, amounting to a subsidy for the developers and new residents at the expense of existing property taxpayers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Transit-oriented development</span> Urban planning prioritising transit

In urban planning, transit-oriented development (TOD) is a type of urban development that maximizes the amount of residential, business and leisure space within walking distance of public transport. It promotes a symbiotic relationship between dense, compact urban form and public transport use. In doing so, TOD aims to increase public transport ridership by reducing the use of private cars and by promoting sustainable urban growth.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Suburbanization</span> Population shift from central urban areas into suburbs

Suburbanization, or suburbanisation, is a population shift from central urban areas into suburbs, resulting in the formation of (sub)urban sprawl. As a consequence of the movement of households and businesses out of the city centers, low-density, peripheral urban areas grow. Sub-urbanization is inversely related to urbanization (urbanisation), which denotes a population shift from rural areas into urban centers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Public transport accessibility level</span>

The public transport accessibility level (PTAL) is a method sometimes used in United Kingdom transport planning to assess the access level of geographical areas to public transport.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Infill</span> Rededication of land in an urban environment to new construction

In urban planning, infill, or in-fill, is the rededication of land in an urban environment, usually open-space, to new construction. Infill also applies, within an urban polity, to construction on any undeveloped land that is not on the urban margin. The slightly broader term "land recycling" is sometimes used instead. Infill has been promoted as an economical use of existing infrastructure and a remedy for urban sprawl. Its detractors view it as overloading urban services, including increased traffic congestion and pollution, and decreasing urban green-space. Many also detract it for social and historical reasons, partly due to its unproven effects and its similarity with gentrification.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Affordable housing</span> Housing affordable to those with a median household income

Affordable housing is housing which is deemed affordable to those with a household income at or below the median as rated by the national government or a local government by a recognized housing affordability index. Most of the literature on affordable housing refers to mortgages and a number of forms that exist along a continuum – from emergency homeless shelters, to transitional housing, to non-market rental, to formal and informal rental, indigenous housing, and ending with affordable home ownership.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mixed-use development</span> Type of urban development strategy

Mixed use is a type of urban development, urban design, urban planning and/or a zoning classification that blends multiple uses, such as residential, commercial, cultural, institutional, or entertainment, into one space, where those functions are to some degree physically and functionally integrated, and that provides pedestrian connections. Mixed-use development may be applied to a single building, a block or neighborhood, or in zoning policy across an entire city or other administrative unit. These projects may be completed by a private developer, (quasi-) governmental agency, or a combination thereof. A mixed-use development may be a new construction, reuse of an existing building or brownfield site, or a combination.

Activity centre is a term used in urban planning and design for a mixed-use urban area where there is a concentration of commercial and other land uses. For example, the central business districts of cities (CBD) are also known as “Central Activities Districts” (CAD) (also known as Downtown in North America or "Central Activities Zone" in the United Kingdom in recognition of the fact that commercial functions are not the only things that occur there. The term activity centre can also be used to designate an area for mixed-use development, whatever its current land use happens to be.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Car dependency</span> Concept that city layouts may favor automobiles over bicycles, public transit, and walking.

Car dependency is the concept that some city layouts cause cars to be favoured over alternate forms of transportation, such as bicycles, public transit, and walking.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Medium-density housing</span>

Medium-density housing is a term used within urban planning and academic literature to refer to a category of residential development that falls between detached suburban housing and large multi-story buildings. There is no singular definition of medium-density housing as its precise definition tends to vary between jurisdiction. Scholars however, have found that medium density housing ranges from about 25 to 80 dwellings per hectare, although most commonly sits around 30 and 40 dwellings/hectare. Typical examples of medium-density housing include duplexes, triplexes, townhouses, row homes, detached homes with garden suites, and walk-up apartment buildings.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Walkability</span> How accessible a space is to walking

Walkability is a term for planning concepts best understood by the mixed-use of amenities in high-density neighborhoods where people can access said amenities by foot. It is based on the idea that urban spaces should be more than just transport corridors designed for maximum vehicle throughput. Instead, it should be relatively complete livable spaces that serve a variety of uses, users, and transportation modes and reduce the need for cars for travel.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Land recycling</span>

Land recycling is the reuse of abandoned, vacant, or underused properties for redevelopment or repurposing.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Compact city</span> High density mixed use transit oriented planning

The compact city or city of short distances is an urban planning and urban design concept, which promotes relatively high residential density with mixed land uses. It is based on an efficient public transport system and has an urban layout which – according to its advocates – encourages walking and cycling, low energy consumption and reduced pollution. A large resident population provides opportunities for social interaction as well as a feeling of safety in numbers and "eyes on the street". It is also arguably a more sustainable urban settlement type than urban sprawl because it is less dependent on the car, requiring less infrastructure provision.

The Growth Plan for the Greater Golden Horseshoe, 2006 is a regional growth management policy for the Greater Golden Horseshoe (GGH) area of southern Ontario, Canada. Introduced under the Places to Grow Act in 2005, the Plan was approved by the Lieutenant Governor in Council and enacted on June 16, 2006. Administered by the Ontario Ministry of Infrastructure (MOI), the plan identifies density and intensification targets, urban growth centres, strategic employment areas, and settlement area restrictions designed to mitigate negative environmental, economic and human health impacts associated with sprawling, uncoordinated growth in the region.

Missing middle housing describes a range of multi-family or clustered housing types that are compatible in scale with single-family or transitional neighborhoods. Missing middle housing is intended to meet the demand for walkable neighborhoods, respond to changing demographics, and provide housing at different price points. The term "missing middle" is meant to describe housing types that were common in the pre-WWII United States such as duplexes, rowhomes, and courtyard apartments but are now less common and, therefore, "missing". Rather than focusing on the number of units in a structure, missing middle housing emphasizes scale and heights that are appropriate for single-family neighborhoods or transitional neighborhoods. After the introduction of the term in 2010, the concept has been applied in the United States, Canada, and Australia.

Environmental, ecological or green gentrification is a process in which cleaning up pollution or providing green amenities increases local property values and attracts wealthier residents to a previously polluted or disenfranchised neighbourhood. Green amenities include green spaces, parks, green roofs, gardens and green and energy efficient building materials. These initiatives can heal many environmental ills from industrialization and beautify urban landscapes. Additionally, greening is imperative for reaching a sustainable future. However, if accompanied by gentrification, these initiatives can have an ambiguous social impact. For example, if the low income households are displaced or forced to pay higher housing costs. First coined by Sieg et al. (2004), environmental gentrification is a relatively new concept, although it can be considered as a new hybrid of the older and wider topics of gentrification and environmental justice. Social implications of greening projects specifically with regards to housing affordability and displacement of vulnerable citizens. Greening in cities can be both healthy and just.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Transport divide</span> Unequal access to transport

Transport divide refers to unequal access to transportation. It can result in the social exclusion of disadvantaged groups.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">15-minute city</span> Area meeting needs within 15 minute walk or cycle

The 15-minute city is an urban planning concept in which most daily necessities and services, such as work, shopping, education, healthcare, and leisure can be easily reached by a 15-minute walk or bike ride from any point in the city. This approach aims to reduce car dependency, promote healthy and sustainable living, and improve wellbeing and quality of life for city dwellers.

References

  1. ↑ Shaw, B. J.; Houghton, D. S. (1991-06-01). "Urban Consolidation: Beyond the Rhetoric". Urban Policy and Research. 9 (2): 85–91. doi:10.1080/08111149108551463. ISSN   0811-1146.
  2. ↑ Byrne, Jason; Sipe, Neil (March 2010). "Green and open space planning for urban consolidation – A review of the literature and best practice". Urban Research Program. 11: 1–39 – via Griffith Research Online.
  3. ↑ Troy, Patrick Nicol (1996-01-01). The perils of urban consolidation : a discussion of Australian housing and urban development policies. Federation Press. ISBN   9781862872110. OCLC   35570982.
  4. ↑ Richard H. Zeitlan, "Prairie du Chien: Urban Consolidation and Decline, 1858-1930," July, 1980, unpublished report for U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, St. Paul, p. 8.
  5. ↑ Searle, Glen (2004-01-01). "The limits to urban consolidation". Australian Planner. 41 (1): 42–48. doi:10.1080/07293682.2004.9982332. ISSN   0729-3682. S2CID   111321636.
  6. ↑ Byrne, Jason; Kendrick, Megan; Sroaf, David (2007-04-01). "The Park Made of Oil: Towards a Historical Political Ecology of the Kenneth Hahn State Recreation Area". Local Environment. 12 (2): 153–181. doi:10.1080/13549830601161830. hdl: 10072/17079 . ISSN   1354-9839. S2CID   145346479.
  7. ↑ Baird, Marian (2001-05-01). "Greenfield sites: Purpose, potential and pitfalls". Asia Pacific Journal of Human Resources. 39 (2): 66–82. doi:10.1177/103841110103900205. ISSN   1038-4111.
  8. ↑ Yates, Judith (2001-12-01). "The rhetoric and reality of housing choice: The role of urban consolidation". Urban Policy and Research. 19 (4): 491–527. doi:10.1080/08111140108727895. ISSN   0811-1146. S2CID   153981498.
  9. ↑ "What is TOD? - Institute for Transportation and Development Policy". Institute for Transportation and Development Policy. Retrieved 2017-05-04.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.