 | The examples and perspective in this article may not represent a worldwide view of the subject.(April 2020) |
Youth homelessness is the problem of homelessness of young people around the globe.
| The examples and perspective in this article may not represent a worldwide view of the subject.(April 2020) |
Youth homelessness is the problem of homelessness of young people around the globe.
Youth homelessness is a significant social issue globally, both in developing countries and many developed countries. In developing countries, research and prevention has mostly focused on "street children", while in developed countries, central concerns in the research and prevention of youth homelessness include breakdown in family relationships and other causes that lead to young people leaving home. [1] The term "street children" also includes street workers who are not actually homeless. [2]
The exact definition of youth homelessness varies by region. In the United States, a homeless youth is someone who is under the age of 21 and is unable to safely live with a relative, and has no other safe alternative living arrangement. [3] In Australia, there are three categories of homelessness which include those who live from one emergency shelter to another (in homeless shelters or 'couch surfing' at friends' homes) as well as those living in accommodation that falls below minimum community standards (boarding houses and caravan parks). [4]
Homeless people, and homeless organizations, are sometimes accused or convicted of fraudulent behavior. Criminals are also known to exploit homeless people, ranging from identity theft to tax and welfare scams. [5] [6] [7] These incidents often lead to negative connotations about homeless youth. [8] [9]
Youth homelessness in Australia is a significant social issue, [10] affecting tens of thousands of young people. In 2006, the Australian government estimate, focusing on homeless school children, found some 20,000 homeless youth between the ages of 12 and 18. [11] Another estimate found approximately 44,000 homeless Australians under the age of 25. [12]
Activists maintain that the majority of young people leave home because of family breakdown, often caused by domestic violence and abuse. [13] Swinburne University researchers found that over $600 million is spent each year on health and justice services for homeless youth. [14]
Researchers have studied the prevalence of psychological distress and mental illness among homeless youth in Australia. [15]
Some experts argue that early intervention services are an effective way to curb youth homelessness. [16] Other researchers have examined the potential solution of youth foyers. [17]
In Canada, youth homelessness is recognized as a significant social issue, however, no nationwide strategy or study has been conducted. [18]
Some researchers focus on the effects of homelessness on young LGBT Canadians. [19] Others focus on various factors of physical and mental health among Canada's homeless youth. [20] [21]
In the United States, homeless youth are a varied group. [22] Some researchers maintain that around two million young people in America are homeless. [23] According to the National Conference of State Legislature, roughly 41,000 kids and young adults within the ages of 13-25 experience homelessness every night. Almost all of which have reported suffering from at least one of the following; substance misuse problems, mental health problems, foster care, juvenile jail or detention, and physical harm. Many of these individuals have experienced extreme trauma and despair either before or after becoming homeless.
Looking through a demographic lens, lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender youth have more than two times the risk of being homeless than a heterosexual. This can be a result from family problems along with not being accepted by parents or guardians. Females in particular are more likely to “run away” from home resulting in no shelter. [24]
Many actions can be taken to help solve these homeless individuals in the United States. One factor that could make a positive change is re-establishing family relationships. This being the main starting point for homelessness, emphasizing the importance of loved ones can make all the difference. Another more direct action is improving the crisis response regarding these youth and young adults. Whether it’s state-related, or even larger organizations, more plans and evaluations need to be made. [25]
Youth homelessness is often accompanied by high-risk behaviors like sex without a condom and drug use. This happens at a much higher rate than young people who have a stable living situation. [26] Even though the risk of infection is much higher for homeless young people, studies have found that only 46% had been tested recently, suggesting that homeless youth are not any more likely to get tested for sexually transmitted infections (STI) than their peers. [27] A history of neglect and abuse is common for youth who become homeless, so they often have a deep distrust of adults and other authority figures. Adults wanting to help these vulnerable young people will need to prove themselves to be trustworthy if they want to maintain any sort of lasting connection with them. Effective connections have been formed through offering free STI testing. While outreach for interviews saw a retention rate of less than 40%, [28] similar studies offering free STI testing saw return visits as high as 98%. [29] Readily available comprehensive healthcare will help address STI infection rates, and problems of social isolation for this population.
Research in policies intended to aid homeless youth often take qualitative approaches where the needs of homeless youth and the efficacy of provided services are assessed. A study of youth experiencing homelessness (YEH) in San Francisco, California, compiled data on YEH experiences and recommendations for policy changes. [30] A total of 45 interviews were conducted with YEH, ranging from 15 to 24 years of age, who experienced at least one night of homelessness six months prior to being interviewed. During the interviews, YEH described having trouble accessing basic resource accommodations, housing, trauma therapy, ADA accommodations, and educational resources. When the study was conducted, many of the resources YEH had trouble accessing were provided by various agencies in the area. The caveat being not all resource accommodations were provided by one agency, rather, YEH were required to travel from agency to agency across the San Francisco area to have their needs met. Accordingly, YEH recommended that an agency provide exhaust services at expanded hours of operation. YEH also described negative interactions with service providers and recommended that workers receive trauma-informed service training; many homeless youths have experienced histories of hardship and trauma, thus it is important to look at how past experiences might have led to homelessness.
Transition-aged youth, ages 16 to 25, who misuse substances often experience extreme hardship in the time leading up to homelessness. [31] Factors contributing to youth homelessness include adverse life events, out-of-home placement, incarceration, childhood trauma, physical abuse, sexual abuse, sexual assault, and death of a parent. A study found the service needs of transition-aged youth engaged in substance misuse not satisfied. [32] Stakeholders described long waiting lists for housing and trouble finding employment. Many homeless youths are mentally and physically unstable. For example, one stakeholder described the difficulty getting patients who self-medicate clinical help and treatment for psychosis. Clinics often refuse services to self-medicating users out of fear of miss prescribing substance related issues. Mental disorders found to be most prevalent were depression, anxiety, bipolar disorder, and psychotic disorders. The stigma youth hold of behavioral health services makes it difficult to provide aid; it is often the case that youth in need of behavioral health services do not seek help.
The New Opportunities Prevention Strategy is a national strategy to prevent youth homelessness developed by researchers at Chapin Hall at the University of Chicago. [33] The research group there has developed a protocol for addressing youth homelessness with four levels of prevention categorized by effectiveness and ease of implementation. Their findings show that the most effective way to aid youth homelessness is to introduce policies that intervene in the lives of youth prior to them becoming homeless. They argue that preventing unequal risk is the most effective and easiest prevention strategy to implement. This includes providing housing availability, direct cash transfers, and increasing access to quality resources and support. The group proposes policy actions for greater investment from all levels of government in housing supply and increasing low-income housing tax credit. Preventing recurrence is the most difficult prevention strategy to implement.
The Pathways to Success Model Intervention was developed to aid youth exiting foster care and prevent homelessness. [34] Pathways was implemented in three counties in Colorado, to reach a large demographic, one urban, one suburban, and one rural were selected. The methodology of Pathways is built on the idea of a navigator-youth relationship. The navigator is a service provider who provides coach-like engagement to develop a positive relationship with the youth, originating from Co-Active Life Coaching (CALC) theory. The relationship between the Navigator and youth is shaped by four core principles:
1. The assertation that people are inherently resourceful and capable of making choices, taking action, and learning.
2. A focus on the youth as a whole person rather than a problem to solve.
3. To stay present in the moment.
4. To maintain a vision of the possibility of transformation. [35]
Youth between the ages of 14 and 21 with child welfare experience and additional risk factors for homelessness qualified to be participants; participants were enrolled into the Pathways program between July 2016 and September 2019. By analyzing pre and post intervention surveys it was concluded that 40% of all post-test respondents secured housing; youth reporting as homeless dropped from 37% (pre-test) to 10% (post-test). Employment and finance metrics were tracked. From pre-test to post-test the average monthly income increased from 627.00 USD to 1,052.00 USD. Part-time employment increased by 4% and full-time employment increased by 10%. Findings indicate that youth-driven, coach-like engagement is effective in reducing homelessness for youth coming out of the foster care system.
Developing effective policies that address youth homeless seems to be better done when policymakers consider feedback from youth experiencing homelessness.
Mental health encompasses emotional, psychological, and social well-being, influencing cognition, perception, and behavior. According to World Health Organization (WHO), it is a "state of well-being in which the individual realizes his or her abilities, can cope with the normal stresses of life, can work productively and fruitfully, and can contribute to his or her community". It likewise determines how an individual handles stress, interpersonal relationships, and decision-making. Mental health includes subjective well-being, perceived self-efficacy, autonomy, competence, intergenerational dependence, and self-actualization of one's intellectual and emotional potential, among others. From the perspectives of positive psychology or holism, mental health may include an individual's ability to enjoy life and to create a balance between life activities and efforts to achieve psychological resilience. Cultural differences, personal philosophy, subjective assessments, and competing professional theories all affect how one defines "mental health". Some early signs related to mental health difficulties are sleep irritation, lack of energy, lack of appetite, thinking of harming oneself or others, self-isolating, and frequently zoning out.
Out of 10,000 female individuals 13 are homeless. Although studies reflect that there are many differences among women suffering homelessness and there is no universal experience, the average homeless woman is 35 years old, has children, is a member of a minority community, and has experienced homelessness more than once in their lifetime.
Homelessness in Australia is a social issue concerning the number of people in Australia that are considered to be homeless. There are no internationally agreed upon definitions of homelessness, making it difficult to compare levels of homelessness across countries. A majority of people experiencing homelessness long-term in Australia are found in the large cities of Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane and Perth. It is estimated that on any given night approximately 116,000 people will be homeless and many more are living in insecure housing, "one step away from being homeless". A person who does not obtain any shelter is often described as sleeping 'rough'.
College health is a desired outcome created by a constellation of services, programs and policies directed at advancing the health and wellbeing of individuals enrolled in an institution of higher education, while also addressing and improving both population health and community health. Many colleges and universities worldwide apply both health promotion and health care as processes to achieve key performance indicators in college health. The variety of healthcare services provided by any one institution range from first aid stations employing a single nurse to large, accredited, multi-specialty ambulatory healthcare clinics with hundreds of employees. These services, programs and policies require a multidisciplinary team, the healthcare services alone include physicians, physician assistants, administrators, nurses, nurse practitioners, mental health professionals, health educators, athletic trainers, dietitians and nutritionists, and pharmacists. Some of the healthcare services extend to include massage therapists and other holistic health care professionals. While currently changing, the vast majority of college health services are set up as cost centers or service units rather than as parts of academic departments or health care delivery enterprises.
Women who have sex with women (WSW) are women who engage in sexual activities with women, whether they identify as straight, lesbian, bisexual, pansexual, have other sexualities, or dispense with sexual identification altogether. The term WSW is often used in medical literature to describe such women as a group for clinical study, without needing to consider sexual self-identity.
The recovery model, recovery approach or psychological recovery is an approach to mental disorder or substance dependence that emphasizes and supports a person's potential for recovery. Recovery is generally seen in this model as a personal journey rather than a set outcome, and one that may involve developing hope, a secure base and sense of self, supportive relationships, empowerment, social inclusion, coping skills, and meaning. Recovery sees symptoms as a continuum of the norm rather than an aberration and rejects sane-insane dichotomy.
Substance abuse prevention, also known as drug abuse prevention, is a process that attempts to prevent the onset of substance use or limit the development of problems associated with using psychoactive substances. Prevention efforts may focus on the individual or their surroundings. A concept that is known as "environmental prevention" focuses on changing community conditions or policies so that the availability of substances is reduced as well as the demand. Individual Substance Abuse Prevention, also known as drug abuse prevention involves numerous different sessions depending on the individual to help cease or reduce the use of substances. The time period to help a specific individual can vary based upon many aspects of an individual. The type of Prevention efforts should be based upon the individual's necessities which can also vary. Substance use prevention efforts typically focus on minors and young adults – especially between 12–35 years of age. Substances typically targeted by preventive efforts include alcohol, tobacco, marijuana, inhalants, coke, methamphetamine, steroids, club drugs, and opioids. Community advocacy against substance use is imperative due to the significant increase in opioid overdoses in the United States alone. It has been estimated that about one hundred and thirty individuals continue to lose their lives daily due to opioid overdoses alone.
Adolescent health, or youth health, is the range of approaches to preventing, detecting or treating young people's health and well-being.
Youth suicide is when a young person, generally categorized as someone below the legal age of majority, deliberately ends their own life. Rates of youth suicide and attempted youth suicide in Western societies and other countries are high. Youth suicide attempts are more common among girls, but adolescent males are the ones who usually carry out suicide. Suicide rates in youths have nearly tripled between the 1960s and 1980s. For example, in Australia suicide is second only to motor vehicle accidents as its leading cause of death for people aged 15 to 25.
Substance use disorder (SUD) is the persistent use of drugs despite the substantial harm and adverse consequences to one's own self and others, as a result of their use. In perspective, the effects of the wrong use of substances that are capable of causing harm to the user or others, have been extensively described in different studies using a variety of terms such as substance use problems, problematic drugs or alcohol use, and substance use disorder. The National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) states that "Substance use disorder (SUD) is a treatable mental disorder that affects a person's brain and behavior, leading to their inability to control their use of substances like legal or illegal drugs, alcohol, or medications. Symptoms can be moderate to severe, with addiction being the most severe form of SUD". Substance use disorders (SUD) are considered to be a serious mental illness that fluctuates with the age that symptoms first start appearing in an individual, the time during which it exists and the type of substance that is used. It is not uncommon for those who have SUD to also have other mental health disorders. Substance use disorders are characterized by an array of mental/emotional, physical, and behavioral problems such as chronic guilt; an inability to reduce or stop consuming the substance(s) despite repeated attempts; operating vehicles while intoxicated; and physiological withdrawal symptoms. Drug classes that are commonly involved in SUD include: alcohol (alcoholism); cannabis; opioids; stimulants such as nicotine, cocaine and amphetamines; benzodiazepines; barbiturates; and other substances.
Survival sex is a form of prostitution engaged in by people because of their extreme need. It describes the practice of people who are homeless or otherwise disadvantaged in society, trading sex for food, a place to sleep, or other basic needs, or for drugs. The term is used by sex trade, poverty researchers, and aid workers.
In a study in Western societies, homeless people have a higher prevalence of mental illness when compared to the general population. They also are more likely to suffer from alcoholism and drug dependency. It is estimated that 20–25% of homeless people, compared with 6% of the non-homeless, have severe mental illness. Others estimate that up to one-third of the homeless have a mental illness. In January 2015, the most extensive survey ever undertaken found 564,708 people were homeless on a given night in the United States. Depending on the age group in question and how homelessness is defined, the consensus estimate as of 2014 was that, at minimum, 25% of the American homeless—140,000 individuals—were seriously mentally ill at any given point in time. 45% percent of the homeless—250,000 individuals—had any mental illness. More would be labeled homeless if these were annual counts rather than point-in-time counts. Being chronically homeless also means that people with mental illnesses are more likely to experience catastrophic health crises requiring medical intervention or resulting in institutionalization within the criminal justice system. Majority of the homeless population do not have a mental illness. Although there is no correlation between homelessness and mental health, those who are dealing with homelessness are struggling with psychological and emotional distress. The Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration conducted a study and found that in 2010, 26.2 percent of sheltered homeless people had a severe mental illness.
David DuPuy Celentano is a noted epidemiologist and professor who has contributed significantly to the promotion of research on HIV/AIDS and other sexually transmitted infections (STIs). He is the Charles Armstrong chair of the Department of Epidemiology at the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health. He holds joint appointments with the school’s departments of Health Policy and Management, Health Behavior and Society, and International Health, and the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine’s Division of Infectious Diseases.
Transgender sex workers are transgender people who work in the sex industry or perform sexual services in exchange for money or other forms of payment. In general, sex workers appear to be at great risk for serious health problems related to their profession, such as physical and sexual assault, robbery, murder, physical and mental health problems, and drug and alcohol addiction. Though all sex workers are at risk for the problems listed, some studies suggest that sex workers who engage in street-based work have a higher risk for experiencing these issues. Transgender sex workers experience high degrees of discrimination both in and outside of the sex industry and face higher rates of contracting HIV and experiencing violence as a result of their work. In addition, a clear distinction needs to be made between consensual sex work and sex trafficking where there is a lack of control and personal autonomy.
Risky sexual behavior is the description of the activity that will increase the probability that a person engaging in sexual activity with another person infected with a sexually transmitted infection will be infected or become unintended pregnant, or make a partner pregnant. It can mean two similar things: the behavior itself, and the description of the partner's behavior.
Suicide among Native Americans in the United States, both attempted and completed, is more prevalent than in any other racial or ethnic group in the United States. Among American youths specifically, Native American youths also show higher rates of suicide than American youths of other races. Despite making up only 0.9% of the total United States population, American Indians and Alaska Natives (AIANs) are a significantly heterogeneous group, with 560 federally recognized tribes, more than 200 non-federally recognized tribes, more than 300 languages spoken, and one half or more of them living in urban areas. Suicide rates are likewise variable within AIAN communities. Reported rates range from 0 to 150 per 100,000 members of the population for different groups. Native American men are more likely to commit suicide than Native American women, but Native American women show a higher prevalence of suicidal behaviors. Interpersonal relationships, community environment, spirituality, mental healthcare, and alcohol abuse interventions are among subjects of studies about the effectiveness of suicide prevention efforts. David Lester calls attention to the existence and importance of theories of suicide developed by indigenous peoples themselves, and notes that they "can challenge traditional Western theories of suicide." Studies by Olson and Wahab as well as Doll and Brady report that the Indian Health Service has lacked the resources needed to sufficiently address mental health problems in Native American communities. The most complete records of suicide among Native Americans in the United States are reported by the Indian Health Service.
Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) include childhood emotional, physical, or sexual abuse and household dysfunction during childhood. The categories are verbal abuse, physical abuse, contact sexual abuse, a battered mother, household substance abuse, household mental illness, incarcerated household members, and parental separation or divorce. The experiences chosen were based upon prior research that has shown to them to have significant negative health or social implications, and for which substantial efforts are being made in the public and private sector to reduce their frequency of occurrence. Scientific evidence is mounting that such adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) have a profound long-term effect on health. Research shows that exposure to abuse and to serious forms of family dysfunction in the childhood family environment are likely to activate the stress response, thus potentially disrupting the developing nervous, immune, and metabolic systems of children. ACEs are associated with lifelong physical and mental health problems that emerge in adolescence and persist into adulthood, including cardiovascular disease, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, autoimmune diseases, substance abuse, and depression.
Hip Hop Therapy (HHT) is a contemporary approach in mental health treatment that takes into account the profound impact of Hip Hop culture and its capacity to promote individual and communal transformation. Dr. Edgar Tyson (1963-2018) coined the term and created the foundational model in 1996. Hip Hop therapy has evolved into a conceptual framework with significant global resonance. HHT refers to the purposeful use of Hip Hop culture by a mental health professional within the context of the therapeutic relationship. The approach embodies a wide array of interventions that mix the inherently cathartic components of the culture with well-established treatment models, from music therapy, poetry therapy and other expressive therapies to cognitive behavioral therapy and narrative therapy. Hip Hop therapy is a culturally relevant remix of therapeutic conceptions that revitalizes the many merits of established forms, including psychiatry, that have traditionally overlooked disenfranchised populations.
Human sexual promiscuity is the practice of having many different sexual partners. In the case of men, this behavior of sexual nondiscrimination and hypersexuality is referred to as satyriasis, while in the case of women, this behavior is conventionally known as nymphomania. Both conditions are regarded as possibly compulsive and pathological qualities, closely related to hyper-sexuality. The results of, or costs associated with, these behaviors are the effects of human sexual promiscuity.
The social determinants of mental health (SDOMH) are societal problems that disrupt mental health, increase risk of mental illness among certain groups, and worsen outcomes for individuals with mental illnesses. Much like the social determinants of health (SDOH), SDOMH include the non-medical factors that play a role in the likelihood and severity of health outcomes, such as income levels, education attainment, access to housing, and social inclusion. Disparities in mental health outcomes are a result of a multitude of factors and social determinants, including fixed characteristics on an individual level – such as age, gender, race/ethnicity, and sexual orientation – and environmental factors that stem from social and economic inequalities – such as inadequate access to proper food, housing, and transportation, and exposure to pollution.
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Youth homelessness
Alder, C., 1991. Victims of violence: The case of homeless youth. Australian & New Zealand Journal of Criminology, 24(1), pp. 1–14. White, R., 1993. Youth and the conflict over urban space. Children's Environments, pp. 85–93. Youth Homelessness in Australia, Youth Homelessness in Australia | Department of Social Services, Australian Government
