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Bacteriology is the branch and specialty of biology that studies the morphology, ecology, genetics and biochemistry of bacteria as well as many other aspects related to them. This subdivision of microbiology involves the identification, classification, and characterization of bacterial species. Because of the similarity of thinking and working with microorganisms other than bacteria, such as protozoa, fungi, and viruses, there has been a tendency for the field of bacteriology to extend as microbiology. The terms were formerly often used interchangeably. However, bacteriology can be classified as a distinct science.
The three-domain system is a biological classification introduced by Carl Woese, Otto Kandler, and Mark Wheelis in 1990 that divides cellular life forms into three domains, namely Archaea, Bacteria, and Eukarya. The key difference from earlier classifications such as the two-empire system and the five-kingdom classification is the splitting of Archaea from Bacteria as completely different organisms. It has been challenged by the two-domain system that divides organisms into Bacteria and Archaea only, as Eukaryotes are considered as one group of Archaea.
In bioinformatics, sequence analysis is the process of subjecting a DNA, RNA or peptide sequence to any of a wide range of analytical methods to understand its features, function, structure, or evolution. Methodologies used include sequence alignment, searches against biological databases, and others.
The Thermoproteota are prokaryotes that have been classified as a phylum of the Archaea domain. Initially, the Thermoproteota were thought to be sulfur-dependent extremophiles but recent studies have identified characteristic Thermoproteota environmental rRNA indicating the organisms may be the most abundant archaea in the marine environment. Originally, they were separated from the other archaea based on rRNA sequences; other physiological features, such as lack of histones, have supported this division, although some crenarchaea were found to have histones. Until recently all cultured Thermoproteota had been thermophilic or hyperthermophilic organisms, some of which have the ability to grow at up to 113°C. These organisms stain Gram negative and are morphologically diverse, having rod, cocci, filamentous and oddly-shaped cells.
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The two-empire system was the top-level biological classification system in general use before the establishment of the three-domain system. It classified cellular life into Prokaryota and Eukaryota as either "empires" or "superkingdoms". When the three-domain system was introduced, some biologists preferred the two-superkingdom system, claiming that the three-domain system overemphasized the division between Archaea and Bacteria. However, given the current state of knowledge and the rapid progress in biological scientific advancement, especially due to genetic analyses, that view has all but vanished.
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Woese's dogma is a principle of evolutionary biology first put forth by biophysicist Carl Woese in 1977. It states that the evolution of ribosomal RNA was a necessary precursor to the evolution of modern life forms. This led to the advancement of the phylogenetic tree of life consisting of three domains rather than the previously accepted two. While the existence of Eukarya and Prokarya were already accepted, Woese was responsible for the distinction between Bacteria and Archaea. Despite initial criticism and controversy surrounding his claims, Woese's three domain system, based on his work regarding the role of rRNA in the evolution of modern life, has become widely accepted.
Microbial phylogenetics is the study of the manner in which various groups of microorganisms are genetically related. This helps to trace their evolution. To study these relationships biologists rely on comparative genomics, as physiology and comparative anatomy are not possible methods.
The history of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) includes the work of many researchers who contributed to the discovery of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and described the underlying physics of magnetic resonance imaging, starting early in the twentieth century. MR imaging was invented by Paul C. Lauterbur who developed a mechanism to encode spatial information into an NMR signal using magnetic field gradients in September 1971; he published the theory behind it in March 1973.
References
- ↑ "Sequencing technologies". The Human Genome. Wellcome Trust. Archived from the original on November 9, 2012. Retrieved October 25, 2012.
- ↑ Woese, Carl R.; Fox, George E. (1977). "Phylogenetic structure of the prokaryotic domain: The primary kingdoms". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences . United States. 74 (11): 5088–90. Bibcode:1977PNAS...74.5088W. doi: 10.1073/pnas.74.11.5088 . PMC 432104 . PMID 270744.
- ↑ Sanger, F.; Nicklen, S.; Coulson, A. R. (1977). "DNA sequencing with chain-terminating inhibitors". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. United States. 74 (12): 5463–5467. Bibcode:1977PNAS...74.5463S. doi: 10.1073/pnas.74.12.5463 . PMC 431765 . PMID 271968.
- ↑ "Commodore 64 computer".
- ↑ Long, Tony (June 5, 2007). "June 5, 1977: From a Little Apple a Mighty Industry Grows". Wired. Archived from the original on May 28, 2009. Retrieved June 2, 2009.
- ↑ Reimer, Jeremy (December 14, 2005). "Total share: 30 years of personal computer market share figures". Ars Technica. Retrieved May 25, 2010.
- ↑ Furstenberg, Hillel (1977). "Ergodic behavior of diagonal measures and a theorem of Szemerédi on arithmetic progressions". Journal d'Analyse Mathématique . 31: 204–256. doi: 10.1007/BF02813304 . MR 0498471. S2CID 120917478.
- ↑ Weiner, Joel L. (1977). "Global properties of spherical curves". Journal of Differential Geometry. 12 (3): 425–434. doi: 10.4310/jdg/1214434093 . MR 0514446.
- ↑ Damadian, R.; Goldsmith, M.; Minkoff, L. (1977). "NMR in cancer: XVI. Fonar image of the live human body". Physiological Chemistry and Physics. 9 (1): 97–100. PMID 909957.
- ↑ Hinshaw, D. S.; Bottomley, P. A.; Holland, G. N. (1977). "Radiographic thin-section image of the human wrist by nuclear magnetic resonance". Nature . 270 (5639): 722–723. Bibcode:1977Natur.270..722H. doi:10.1038/270722a0. PMID 593393. S2CID 4183336.
- ↑ "First MRI and ultrasound scanning". Benjamin S. Beck. Archived from the original on November 20, 2011. Retrieved December 4, 2011.
- ↑ "The "Indomitable" MRI". Smithsonian Institution. Archived from the original on September 9, 2012. Retrieved December 4, 2011.
- ↑ "Biographical Sketch of Andreas Gruentzig (1939–1985)". Angioplasty.Org. Retrieved November 8, 2011.
- ↑ Meier, Bernhard; Bachmann, Dölf; Lüscher, Thomas F. (February 8, 2003). "25 years of coronary angioplasty: almost a fairy tale". The Lancet . 361 (9356): 527. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(03)12470-1 . PMID 12583964. S2CID 19237951 . Retrieved November 8, 2011.
- ↑ Waldman, Thomas A. (2003). "Immunotherapy: past, present and future" (PDF). Nature Medicine . 9 (3): 269–277. doi: 10.1038/nm0303-269 . PMID 12612576. S2CID 9745527 . Retrieved March 10, 2005.
- ↑ Herb, S.W.; Hom, D.; Lederman, L.; et al. (1977). "Observation of a Dimuon Resonance at 9.5 GeV in 400-GeV Proton-Nucleus Collisions". Physical Review Letters . 39 (5): 252. Bibcode:1977PhRvL..39..252H. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.39.252. OSTI 1155396.