Behavior modification

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Behavior modification is a treatment approach that uses respondent and operant conditioning to change behavior. Based on methodological behaviorism, [1] overt behavior is modified with (antecedent) stimulus control and consequences, including positive and negative reinforcement contingencies to increase desirable behavior, administering positive and negative punishment, and extinction to reduce problematic behavior. [2] [3] [4] It also uses "flooding" desensitization to combat phobias.

Contents

Applied behavior analysis (ABA), behavior therapy, and cognitive-behavioral therapy are more modern-day terms for what used to be called behavior modification.

Description and history

The first use of the term behavior modification appears to have been by Edward Thorndike in 1911. His article Provisional Laws of Acquired Behavior or Learning makes frequent use of the term "modifying behavior". [5] Through early research in the 1940s and the 1950s the term was used by Joseph Wolpe's research group. [6] The experimental tradition in clinical psychology used it to refer to psycho-therapeutic techniques derived from empirical research. [7] In the 1960s, behavior modification operated on stimulus-response-reinforcement framework (S-R-SR), emphasizing the concept of 'transactional' explanations of behavior. [8] It has since come to refer mainly to techniques for increasing adaptive behavior through reinforcement and decreasing maladaptive behavior through extinction or punishment (with emphasis on the former).

In recent years, the concept of punishment has had many critics, though these criticisms tend not to apply to negative punishment (time-outs) and usually apply to the addition of some aversive event. The use of positive punishment by board certified behavior analysts is restricted to extreme circumstances when all other forms of treatment have failed and when the behavior to be modified is a danger to the person or to others (see professional practice of behavior analysis). In clinical settings positive punishment is usually restricted to using a spray bottle filled with water as an aversive event. When misused, more aversive punishment can lead to affective (emotional) disorders, as well as to the receiver of the punishment increasingly trying to avoid the punishment (i.e., "not get caught")..

Behavior modification relies on the following:

Areas of effectiveness

Functional behavior assessment forms the core of applied behavior analysis. Many techniques in this therapy are specific techniques aimed at specific issues. Interventions based on behavior analytic principles have been extremely effective in developing evidence-based treatments. [9] In addition to the above, a growing list of research-based interventions from the behavioral paradigm exist.

Children with ADHD

For children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), one study showed that over a several-year period, children in the behavior modification group had half the number of felony arrests as children in the medication group. [10] [11] These findings have yet to be replicated, but are considered encouraging for the use of behavior modification for children with ADHD. There is strong and consistent evidence that behavioral treatments are effective for treating ADHD. A recent meta-analysis found that the use of behavior modification for ADHD resulted in effect sizes in between group studies (.83), pre-post studies (.70), within group studies (2.64), and single subject studies (3.78) indicating behavioral treatments are highly effective. [12]

Uncontrollable diabetes Type 2

Drawing upon Bandura's self-efficacy theory, which has proven effective in programs aimed at promoting health-related behavioral modifications in adults with diabetes, various interventions have been implemented. These interventions incorporate group counseling, group discussions, and an empowerment process, all geared towards encouraging individuals to adopt healthy dietary practices, adhere to medication regimens, and engage in regular exercise, with the goal of improving glycemic levels. Notably, the outcomes of these programs have demonstrated promising advancements, with improvements observed in self-efficacy and trends towards significance in hemoglobin A1c levels. [13]

Residential treatment

Behavior modification programs form the core of many residential treatment facility programs. They have shown success in reducing recidivism for adolescents with conduct problems and adult offenders. One particular program that is of interest is teaching-family homes (see Teaching Family Model), which is based on a social learning model that emerged from radical behaviorism. These particular homes use a family style approach to residential treatment, which has been carefully replicated over 700 times. [14] Recent efforts have seen a push for the inclusion of more behavior modification programs in residential re-entry programs in the U.S. to aid prisoners in re-adjusting after release.

Weight loss outcomes

Research has shown effectiveness for obese people who binge eat. One program called the Trevose Behavior Modification Program (TBMP) is an accessible self-help weight loss program that emphasizes ongoing care. TBMP, administered and directed by non-professionals, has demonstrated remarkable success in facilitating substantial and lasting weight loss. This program not only offers the advantage of being cost-effective but also provides continuous support. Notably, individuals with and without frequent binge eating have achieved significant long-term weight loss through TBMP's continuing care approach. [15]

Addictions

One area that has repeatedly shown effectiveness has been the work of behaviorists working in the area of community reinforcement for addictions. [16]

Depression

Another area of research that has been strongly supported has been behavioral activation for depression. [17]

One way of giving positive reinforcement in behavior modification is in providing compliments, approval, encouragement, and affirmation; a ratio of five compliments for every one complaint is generally seen as being effective in altering behavior in a desired manner [18] and even in producing stable marriages. [19]

Criticism

Behavior modification is critiqued in person-centered psychotherapeutic approaches such as Rogerian Counseling and Re-evaluation Counseling, [20] which involve "connecting with the human qualities of the person to promote healing", while behaviorism is "denigrating to the human spirit". [21] B.F. Skinner argues in Beyond Freedom and Dignity that unrestricted reinforcement is what led to the "feeling of freedom", thus removal of aversive events allows people to "feel freer". [22] Further criticism extends to the presumption that behavior increases only when it is reinforced. This premise is at odds with research conducted by Albert Bandura at Stanford University. His findings indicate that violent behavior is imitated, without being reinforced, in studies conducted with children watching films showing various individuals "beating the daylights out of Bobo". Bandura believes that human personality and learning is the result of the interaction between environment, behavior and psychological process. There is evidence, however, that imitation is a class of behavior that can be learned just like anything else. Children have been shown to imitate behavior that they have never displayed before and are never reinforced for, after being taught to imitate in general. [23]

Several people[ who? ] have criticized the level of training required to perform behavior modification procedures, especially those that are restrictive or use aversives, aversion therapy, or punishment protocols. Some desire to limit such restrictive procedures only to licensed psychologists or licensed counselors. Once licensed for this group, post-licensed certification in behavior modification is sought to show scope of competence in the area through groups like the World Association for Behavior Analysis. [24] Still others desire to create an independent practice of behavior analysis through licensure to offer consumers choices between proven techniques and unproven ones (see Professional practice of behavior analysis). Level of training and consumer protection remain of critical importance in applied behavior analysis and behavior modification.

See also

Related Research Articles

Operant conditioning, also called instrumental conditioning, is a learning process where voluntary behaviors are modified by association with the addition of reward or aversive stimuli. The frequency or duration of the behavior may increase through reinforcement or decrease through punishment or extinction.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Reinforcement</span> Consequence affecting an organisms future behavior

In behavioral psychology, reinforcement refers to consequences that increases the likelihood of an organism's future behavior, typically in the presence of a particular antecedent stimulus. For example, a rat can be trained to push a lever to receive food whenever a light is turned on. In this example, the light is the antecedent stimulus, the lever pushing is the operant behavior, and the food is the reinforcer. Likewise, a student that receives attention and praise when answering a teacher's question will be more likely to answer future questions in class. The teacher's question is the antecedent, the student's response is the behavior, and the praise and attention are the reinforcements.

Developmental disorders comprise a group of psychiatric conditions originating in childhood that involve serious impairment in different areas. There are several ways of using this term. The most narrow concept is used in the category "Specific Disorders of Psychological Development" in the ICD-10. These disorders comprise developmental language disorder, learning disorders, motor disorders, and autism spectrum disorders. In broader definitions ADHD is included, and the term used is neurodevelopmental disorders. Yet others include antisocial behavior and schizophrenia that begins in childhood and continues through life. However, these two latter conditions are not as stable as the other developmental disorders, and there is not the same evidence of a shared genetic liability.

Behaviorism is a systematic approach to understand the behavior of humans and other animals. It assumes that behavior is either a reflex evoked by the pairing of certain antecedent stimuli in the environment, or a consequence of that individual's history, including especially reinforcement and punishment contingencies, together with the individual's current motivational state and controlling stimuli. Although behaviorists generally accept the important role of heredity in determining behavior, they focus primarily on environmental events. The cognitive revolution of the late 20th century largely replaced behaviorism as an explanatory theory with cognitive psychology, which unlike behaviorism examines internal mental states.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Social skills</span> Competence facilitating interaction and communication with others

A social skill is any competence facilitating interaction and communication with others where social rules and relations are created, communicated, and changed in verbal and nonverbal ways. The process of learning these skills is called socialization. Lack of such skills can cause social awkwardness.

In psychology, aversives are unpleasant stimuli that induce changes in behavior via negative reinforcement or positive punishment. By applying an aversive immediately before or after a behavior the likelihood of the target behavior occurring in the future is reduced. Aversives can vary from being slightly unpleasant or irritating to physically, psychologically and/or emotionally damaging. It is not the level of unpleasantness or intention that defines something as an aversive, but rather the level of effectiveness the unpleasant event has on changing (decreasing) behavior.

Ole Ivar Løvaas was a Norwegian-American clinical psychologist and professor at the University of California, Los Angeles. He is most well known for his research on what is now called applied behavior analysis (ABA) to teach autistic children through prompts, modeling, and positive reinforcement. The therapy is also noted for its use of aversives (punishment) to reduce undesired behavior, however these are now used less commonly than in the past.

A behavior modification facility is a residential educational and treatment institution enrolling adolescents who are perceived as displaying antisocial behavior, in an attempt to alter their conduct.

Applied behavior analysis (ABA), also called behavioral engineering, is a psychological intervention that applies approaches based upon the principles of respondent and operant conditioning to change behavior of social significance. It is the applied form of behavior analysis; the other two forms are radical behaviorism and the experimental analysis of behavior.

Behaviour therapy or behavioural psychotherapy is a broad term referring to clinical psychotherapy that uses techniques derived from behaviourism and/or cognitive psychology. It looks at specific, learned behaviours and how the environment, or other people's mental states, influences those behaviours, and consists of techniques based on behaviorism's theory of learning: respondent or operant conditioning. Behaviourists who practice these techniques are either behaviour analysts or cognitive-behavioural therapists. They tend to look for treatment outcomes that are objectively measurable. Behaviour therapy does not involve one specific method, but it has a wide range of techniques that can be used to treat a person's psychological problems.

Contingency management (CM) is the application of the three-term contingency, which uses stimulus control and consequences to change behavior. CM originally derived from the science of applied behavior analysis (ABA), but it is sometimes implemented from a cognitive-behavior therapy (CBT) framework as well.

Covert conditioning is an approach to mental health treatment that utilizes the principles of applied behavior analysis, or cognitive-behavior therapies (CBTs) to help individuals improve their behavior or inner experience. This method relies on the individual's ability to use imagery for purposes such as mental rehearsal. In some populations, it has been found that an imaginary reward can be as effective as a real one. The effectiveness of covert conditioning is believed to depend on the careful application of behavioral treatment principles, including a comprehensive behavioral analysis.

In operant conditioning, punishment is any change in a human or animal's surroundings which, occurring after a given behavior or response, reduces the likelihood of that behavior occurring again in the future. As with reinforcement, it is the behavior, not the human/animal, that is punished. Whether a change is or is not punishing is determined by its effect on the rate that the behavior occurs. This is called motivating operations (MO), because they alter the effectiveness of a stimulus. MO can be categorized in abolishing operations, decrease the effectiveness of the stimuli and establishing, increase the effectiveness of the stimuli. For example, a painful stimulus which would act as a punisher for most people may actually reinforce some behaviors of masochistic individuals.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Residential treatment center</span> Live-in healthcare facility

A residential treatment center (RTC), sometimes called a rehab, is a live-in health care facility providing therapy for substance use disorders, mental illness, or other behavioral problems. Residential treatment may be considered the "last-ditch" approach to treating abnormal psychology or psychopathology.

The professional practice of behavior analysis is a domain of behavior analysis, the others being radical behaviorism, experimental analysis of behavior and applied behavior analysis. The practice of behavior analysis is the delivery of interventions to consumers that are guided by the principles of radical behaviorism and the research of both experimental and applied behavior analysis. Professional practice seeks to change specific behavior through the implementation of these principles. In many states, practicing behavior analysts hold a license, certificate, or registration. In other states, there are no laws governing their practice and, as such, the practice may be prohibited as falling under the practice definition of other mental health professionals. This is rapidly changing as behavior analysts are becoming more and more common.

Parent management training (PMT), also known as behavioral parent training (BPT) or simply parent training, is a family of treatment programs that aims to change parenting behaviors, teaching parents positive reinforcement methods for improving pre-school and school-age children's behavior problems.

A licensed behavior analyst is a type of behavioral health professional in the United States. They have at least a master's degree, and sometimes a doctorate, in behavior analysis or a related field. Behavior analysts apply radical behaviorism, or applied behavior analysis, to people.

Functional behavior assessment (FBA) is an ongoing process of collecting information with a goal of identifying the environmental variables that control a problem or target behavior. The purpose of the assessment is to prove and aid the effectiveness of the interventions or treatments used to help eliminate the problem behavior. Through functional behavior assessments, we have learned that there are complex patterns to people's seemingly unproductive behaviors. It is important to not only pay attention to consequences that follow the behavior but also the antecedent that evokes the behavior. More work needs to be done in the future with functional assessment including balancing precision and efficiency, being more specific with variables involved and a more smooth transition from assessment to intervention.

Community reinforcement approach and family training (CRAFT) is a behavior therapy approach in psychotherapy for treating addiction developed by Robert J. Meyers in the late 1970s. Meyers worked with Nathan Azrin in the early 1970s whilst he was developing his own community reinforcement approach (CRA) which uses operant conditioning techniques to help people learn to reduce the power of their addictions and enjoy healthy living. Meyers adapted CRA to create CRAFT, which he described as CRA that "works through family members." CRAFT combines CRA with family training to equip concerned significant others (CSOs) of addicts with supportive techniques to encourage their loved ones to begin and continue treatment and provides them with defences against addiction's damaging effects on themselves.

A behavioral change can be a temporary or permanent effect that is considered a change in an individual's behavior when compared to previous behavior. It is sometimes considered a mental disorder, yet it is also a strategy used to improve such disorders. This change is generally characterized by changes in thinking, interpretations, emotions, or relationships. These changes can be either good or bad, depending on which behavior is being affected. Often, it takes much more work to change behavior for the better than it does to experience a negative change. Medications can cause this change as a side effect. The interaction between physiological processes and their effect on individual behavior is the basis of psychophysiology. Several theories exist as to why and how behavioral change can be affected, including behaviorism, Self-efficacy theory, and the stages of change model.

References

  1. ↑ Mahoney, M. J.; Kazdin, A. E.; Lesswing, N. J. (1974). "Behavior modification: delusion or deliverance?". In Franks, C. M.; Wilson, G. T. (eds.). Annual Review of Behavior Therapy: Theory and Practice. Vol. 2. Brunner/Mazel. pp. 11–40.
  2. ↑ Mace, F. C. (1994). "The significance and future of functional analysis methodologies". Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis . 27 (2): 385–92. doi:10.1901/jaba.1994.27-385. PMC   1297814 . PMID   16795830.
  3. ↑ Pelios, L.; Morren, J.; Tesch, D.; Axelrod, S. (1999). "The impact of functional analysis methodology on treatment choice for self-injurious and aggressive behavior". Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis . 32 (2): 185–95. doi:10.1901/jaba.1999.32-185. PMC   1284177 . PMID   10396771.
  4. ↑ Mace, F. C.; Critchfield, T. S. (2010). "Translational research in behavior analysis: Historical traditions and imperative for the future". J Exp Anal Behav. 93 (3): 293–312. doi:10.1901/jeab.2010.93-293. PMC   2861871 . PMID   21119847.
  5. ↑ Thorndike, E.L. (1911). "Provisional Laws of Acquired Behavior or Learning". Animal Intelligence. New York: The Macmillan Company.
  6. ↑ Wolpe, J. (1968). "Psychotheraphy by Reciprocal Inhibition" . Conditional Reflex. 3 (4): 234–240. doi:10.1007/BF03000093. PMID   5712667. S2CID   46015274.
  7. ↑ In Bachrach, A. J., ed. (1962). Experimental Foundations of Clinical Psychology . New York: Basic Books. pp.  3–25.
  8. ↑ Keehn, J.D; Webster, C.D (February 1969). "Behavior Therapy and Behavior Modification". The Canadian Psychogist. 10 (1): 68-73. doi:10.1037/h0082506.
  9. ↑ O'Donohue, W.; Ferguson, K. E. (2006). "Evidence-Based Practice in Psychology and Behavior Analysis". The Behavior Analyst Today. 7 (3): 335–52. doi:10.1037/h0100155.
  10. ↑ Satterfield, J. H.; Satterfield, B. T.; Schell, A. M. (1987). "Therapeutic interventions to prevent delinquency in hyperactive boys". Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 26 (1): 56–64. doi:10.1097/00004583-198701000-00012. PMID   3584002.
  11. ↑ Satterfield, J. H.; Schell, A. (1997). "A prospective study of hyperactive boys with conduct problems and normal boys: Adolescent and adult criminality". Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 36 (12): 1726–35. doi:10.1097/00004583-199712000-00021. PMID   9401334.
  12. ↑ Fabiano, G. A.; Pelham Jr., W. E.; Coles, E. K.; Gnagy, E. M.; Chronis-Tuscano, A.; O'Connor, B. C. (2008). "A meta-analysis of behavioral treatments for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder". Clinical Psychology Review. 29 (2): 129–40. doi: 10.1016/j.cpr.2008.11.001 . PMID   19131150.
  13. ↑ Ounnapiruk, Liwan; Wirojratana, Virapun; Meehatchai, Nitaya; Turale, Sue (2014). "Effectiveness of a behavior modification program for older people with uncontrolled type 2 diabetes". Nursing & Health Sciences. 16 (2): 216–223. doi:10.1111/nhs.12089. PMID   23991917.
  14. ↑ Dean L. Fixsen, Karen A. Blasé, Gary D. Timbers and Montrose M. Wolf (2007) In Search of Program Implementation: 792 Replications of the Teaching-Family Model. Behavior Analyst Today Volume 8, No. 1, pp. 96–106 Behavior Analyst Online
  15. ↑ Delinsky, Sherrie Selwyn; Latner, Janet D.; Wilson, G. Terence (2006). "Binge Eating and Weight Loss in a Self-Help Behavior Modification Program". Obesity. 14 (7): 1244–1249. doi: 10.1038/oby.2006.141 . PMID   16899805. S2CID   1363953.
  16. ↑ Milford, J.L.; Austin, J.L.; Smith, J.E. (2007). Community Reinforcement and the Dissemination of Evidence-based Practice: Implications for Public Policy. IJBCT, 3(1), pp. 77–87 )
  17. ↑ Spates, R.C.; Pagoto, S.; Kalata, A. (2006). "A Qualitative and Quantitative Review of Behavioral Activation Treatment of Major Depressive Disorder". The Behavior Analyst Today. 7 (4): 508–17. doi:10.1037/h0100089. S2CID   3337916.
  18. ↑ Kirkhart, Robert; Kirkhart, Evelyn (1972). "The Bruised Self: Mending in the Early Years" . In Yamamoto, Kaoru (ed.). The Child and His File: Self Concept in the Early Years . New York: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN   978-0-395-12571-7.
  19. ↑ Gottman, J.M.; Levenson, R.W. (1999). "What predicts change in marital interaction over time? A study of alternative models". Family Process. 38 (2): 143–58. doi:10.1111/j.1545-5300.1999.00143.x. PMID   10407716.
  20. ↑ "Re-evaluation Counseling".
  21. ↑ Holland, J.L. (1976). "A new synthesis for an old method and a new analysis of some old phenomena". The Counseling Psychologist. 6 (3): 12–15. doi:10.1177/001100007600600303. S2CID   143031073.
  22. ↑ Skinner, B. F. (1974). Beyond Freedom and Dignity. Harmondsworth: Penguin.
  23. ↑ D. Baer, R.F.; Peterson, J.A. Sherman Psychological Modeling: Conflicting Theories, 2006 [ ISBN missing ]
  24. ↑ "World Center for Behavior Analysis". Archived from the original on 2011-01-10. Retrieved 2011-01-21.
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