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Discussions of race and intelligence –specifically,claims of differences in intelligence along racial lines –have appeared in both popular science and academic research since the modern concept of race was first introduced. With the inception of IQ testing in the early 20th century,differences in average test performance between racial groups were observed,though these differences have fluctuated and in many cases steadily decreased over time. Complicating the issue,modern science has shown race to be a socially constructed phenomenon rather than a biological reality,and there are various conflicting definitions of intelligence. In particular,the validity of IQ testing as a metric for human intelligence is disputed. Today,the scientific consensus is that genetics does not explain differences in IQ test performance between groups,and that observed differences are environmental in origin.
Racial color blindness refers to the belief that a person's race or ethnicity should not influence their legal or social treatment in society.
Discrimination based on skin color,also known as colorism or shadeism,is a form of prejudice and discrimination in which people of certain ethnic groups or people who are perceived as belonging to a darker-skinned race are treated differently based on their darker skin color.
Stereotype threat is a situational predicament in which people are or feel themselves to be at risk of conforming to stereotypes about their social group. It is theorized to be a contributing factor to long-standing racial and gender gaps in academic performance. Since its introduction into the academic literature,stereotype threat has become one of the most widely studied topics in the field of social psychology.
In sociology and social psychology,an in-group is a social group to which a person psychologically identifies as being a member. By contrast,an out-group is a social group with which an individual does not identify. People may for example identify with their peer group,family,community,sports team,political party,gender,sexual orientation,religion,or nation. It has been found that the psychological membership of social groups and categories is associated with a wide variety of phenomena.
Claude Mason Steele is a social psychologist and emeritus professor at Stanford University,where he is the I. James Quillen Endowed Dean,Emeritus at the Stanford University Graduate School of Education,and Lucie Stern Professor in the Social Sciences,Emeritus.
Jennifer A. Richeson is an American social psychologist who studies racial identity and interracial interactions. She is currently the Philip R. Allen Professor of Psychology at Yale University where she heads the Social Perception and Communication Lab. Prior to her appointment to the Yale faculty,Richeson was Professor of Psychology and African-American studies at Northwestern University. In 2015,she was elected to the United States National Academy of Sciences. Richeson was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 2022. Since 2021,she has been a member of the President’s Council of Advisors on Science and Technology (PCAST).
Internalized racism is a form of internalized oppression,defined by sociologist Karen D. Pyke as the "internalization of racial oppression by the racially subordinated." In her study The Psychology of Racism, Robin Nicole Johnson emphasizes that internalized racism involves both "conscious and unconscious acceptance of a racial hierarchy in which whites are consistently ranked above people of color." These definitions encompass a wide range of instances,including,but not limited to,belief in negative stereotypes,adaptations to white cultural standards,and thinking that supports the status quo.
The cross-race effect is the tendency to more easily recognize faces that belong to one's own racial group,or racial groups that one has been in contact with. In social psychology,the cross-race effect is described as the "ingroup advantage," whereas in other fields,the effect can be seen as a specific form of the "ingroup advantage" since it is only applied in interracial or inter-ethnic situations. The cross-race effect is thought to contribute to difficulties in cross-race identification,as well as implicit racial bias.
Aversive racism is a theory proposed by Samuel L. Gaertner &John F. Dovidio (1986),according to which negative evaluations of racial/ethnic minorities are realized by a persistent avoidance of interaction with other racial and ethnic groups. As opposed to traditional,overt racism,which is characterized by overt hatred for and discrimination against racial/ethnic minorities,aversive racism is characterized by more complex,ambivalent expressions and attitudes nonetheless with prejudicial views towards other races. Aversive racism arises from unconscious personal beliefs taught during childhood. Subtle racist behaviors are usually targeted towards African Americans. Workplace discrimination is one of the best examples of aversive racism. Biased beliefs on how minorities act and think affect how individuals interact with minority members.
Hazel June Linda Rose Markus is an American social psychologist and a pioneer in the field of cultural psychology. She is the Davis-Brack Professor in the Behavioral Sciences at Stanford University in Stanford,California. She is also a founder and faculty director of Stanford SPARQ,a "do tank" that partners with industry leaders to tackle disparities and inspire culture change using insights from behavioral science. She is a founder and former director of the Research Institute of the Center for Comparative Studies in Race and Ethnicity (CCSRE). Her research focuses on how culture shapes mind and behavior. She examines how many forms of culture influence the self,and in turn,how we think,feel,and act.
In social psychology,a stereotype is a generalized belief about a particular category of people. It is an expectation that people might have about every person of a particular group. The type of expectation can vary;it can be,for example,an expectation about the group's personality,preferences,appearance or ability. Stereotypes are often overgeneralized,inaccurate,and resistant to new information. A stereotype does not necessarily need to be a negative assumption. They may be positive,neutral,or negative.
Black psychology,also known as African-American psychology and African/Black psychology,is a scientific field that focuses on how people of African descent know and experience the world. The field,particularly in the United States,largely emerged as a result of the lack of understanding of the psychology of Black people under traditional,Westernized notions of psychology. Overall,the field combines perspectives from both Black studies and traditional psychology encapsulating a range of definitions and approaches while simultaneously proposing its own framework of understanding.
African Americans,and African American males in particular,have an ethnic stereotype in which they are portrayed as dangerous criminals. This stereotype is associated with the fact that African Americans are proportionally over-represented in the numbers of those that are arrested and convicted for committing crimes. It has appeared frequently in American popular culture,reinforcing the negative consequences of systemic racism.
An implicit bias or implicit stereotype is the pre-reflective attribution of particular qualities by an individual to a member of some social out group.
The relationship between race and capital punishment in the United States has been studied extensively. As of 2014,42 percent of those on death row in the United States were Black. As of October 2002,there were 12 executions of White defendants where the murder victim was Black,however,there were 178 executed defendants who were Black with a White murder victim. Since then,the number of white defendants executed where the murder victim was black has increased to just 21,whereas the number of Black defendants executed where the murder victim was White has increased to 299. 54 percent of people wrongfully convicted and sentenced to death in the United States are black.
The term shooting bias,also known as "shooter bias",is a proposed form of implicit racial bias which refers to the apparent tendency among the police to shoot black civilians more often than white civilians,even when they are unarmed. In countries where white people aren't the majority,shooting bias may still apply,with different minority groups facing discrimination.
Intergroup relations refers to interactions between individuals in different social groups,and to interactions taking place between the groups themselves collectively. It has long been a subject of research in social psychology,political psychology,and organizational behavior.
Nalini Ambady was an Indian-American social psychologist and a leading expert on nonverbal behavior and interpersonal perception. She was born in Calcutta,India and earned her bachelor’s degree at Lady Shri Ram College for women,Delhi University. She furthered her education by moving to the United States for her master’s degree in psychology,from the College of William and Mary,and later received her PhD in social psychology from Harvard. While completing her research at Harvard,she met her husband Raj Marphatia,who was studying at Harvard Law school.
Valerie Purdie Greenaway,who has also published under the surnames Purdie-Vaughns and Purdie,is an American social psychologist and associate professor of psychology at Columbia University. Her research interests include diversity,stereotypes and intergroup relations. She is one of the first African Americans to receive tenure in the academic sciences at Columbia University,and is credited with coining the term "intersectional invisibility".
References
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- ↑ "Jennifer Eberhardt on Social Psychological Approaches to Race and Crime". law.yale.edu. 4 May 2017. Retrieved 2019-10-31.
- 1 2 "Oakland Engages Stanford University for Groundbreaking, Independent…". City of Oakland. Retrieved 2019-10-31.
- 1 2 Chugh, Dolly. "Book Recommendation: "Biased" By MacArthur Genius Grant Winner Jennifer Eberhardt". Forbes. Retrieved 2019-10-31.
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- ↑ "The American Philosophical Society Welcomes New Members for 2023".
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- ↑ "Cleveland native Jennifer Eberhardt awarded "genius grant"". 20 September 2014.
- 1 2 Albrecht, Brian (2014-09-20). "Cleveland native Jennifer Eberhardt awarded "genius grant"". cleveland. Retrieved 2019-10-31.
- ↑ Linge, Mary Kay (2019-03-23). "Racial bias is shockingly rife — and surprisingly fixable". New York Post. Retrieved 2019-10-31.
- 1 2 3 4 Markus, Hazel Rose (2008). "Pride, prejudice, and ambivalence: toward a unified theory of race and ethnicity". American Psychologist. 63 (8): 651–670. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.63.8.651. PMID 19014214.
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- ↑ Zhou, Guifei; Liu, Jiangang; Xiao, Naiqi G; Wu, Si Jia; Hong, Li; Kang, Lee (2018). "The fusiform face area plays a greater role in holistic processing for own-race faces than other-race faces". Frontiers in Human Neuroscience. 12: 1–16. doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2018.00220 . PMC 5992462 . PMID 29910716.
- ↑ Smith, Jessi L; Johnson, Camille S (2006). "A stereotype boost or choking under pressure? positive gender stereotypes and men who are low in domain identification". Basic and Applied Social Psychology. 28 (1): 51–63. doi:10.1207/s15324834basp2801_5. S2CID 145684776.
- 1 2 3 Weisburd, David; Majmundar, Malay K (2018). Proactive Policing: Effects on Crime and Communities. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press: National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. p. 280. ISBN 978-0-309-46713-1.
- 1 2 Collerton, Daniel; Perry, Elaine; McKeith, Ian (2005). "Why people see things that are not there: A novel Perception and Attention Deficit model for recurrent complex visual hallucinations". Behavioral and Brain Sciences. 28 (6): 737–757. doi:10.1017/S0140525X05000130. PMID 16372931. S2CID 31813489.
- ↑ Vaughns-Purdie, V.; Eibach, P. R. (2008). "Intersectional Invisibility: The Distinctive Advantages and Disadvantages of Multiple Subordinate-Group Identities" (PDF). Sex Roles. 59 (5–6): 377–391. doi:10.1007/s11199-008-9424-4. S2CID 35469591.
- 1 2 3 4 Leyens, Jacques-Philippe; Demoulin, Stephanie; Vaes, Jeroen; Guant, Ruth; Paladino, Maria Paola (2007). "Infra‐humanization: The Wall of Group Differences". Social Issues and Policy Review. 1 (1): 139–172. doi:10.1111/j.1751-2409.2007.00006.x.
- ↑ Trawalter, Sophie; Todd, Andrew R; Baird, Abigail A; Richeson, Jennifer A (2008). "Attending to threat: Race-based patterns of selective attention". Journal of Experimental Social Psychology. 44 (5): 1322–1327. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2008.03.006. PMC 2633407 . PMID 19727428.
- ↑ Conrad, Courtenay R; Croco, Sarah E; Gomez, Brad T; Moore, Whill H (2018). "Threat perception and American support for torture". Political Behavior. 40 (4): 989–1009. doi:10.1007/s11109-017-9433-5. S2CID 149107960.
- ↑ Collins, Catherine Fisher, ed. (2015). Black girls and adolescents: facing the challenges. Santa Barbara, California. ISBN 9781440830532. OCLC 881440013.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ↑ Blume, Arthur W., ed. (2017). Social issues in living color: challenges and solutions from the perspective of ethnic minority psychology. Santa Barbara, California. ISBN 9781440833366. OCLC 953984780.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ↑ Bornstein, Brian H.; Greene, Edie (2017). The jury under fire: myth, controversy, and reform. New York, NY. ISBN 9780190201340. OCLC 957554794.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ↑ Hughey, W. M. (2015). "The Five I's of Five-O: Racial Ideologies, Institutions, Interests, Identities, and Interactions of Police Violence" (PDF). Critical Sociology: 1–15.
- ↑ "Launching the Police Data Initiative". whitehouse.gov. 2015-05-18. Retrieved 2019-10-31.
- ↑ Torino, G.C.; Rivera, D.P.; Capodilupo, C.M.; Nadal, K.L.; Sue, D.W., eds. (2018). Microaggression Theory: Influence and Implications. Wiley. ISBN 978-1-119-42004-0 . Retrieved 8 March 2022.
- ↑ Andrew J. Elliot; Carol S. Dweck; David S. Yeager. Handbook of Competence and Motivation, Second Edition: Theory and Application.
- ↑ Annamma, Subini Ancy (2017). The Pedagogy of Pathologization: Dis/abled Girls of Color in the School-Prison Nexus. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-315-52303-3. ProQuest 1993190096 . Retrieved 8 March 2022.
- ↑ Jason A. Okonofua; Jennifer L. Eberhardt (2015). "Two Strikes: Race and the Disciplining of Young Students". Psychological Science. 26 (5): 617–24. doi:10.1177/0956797615570365. PMID 25854276. S2CID 206587768.
- 1 2 Natasha Warikoo; Stacey Sinclair; Jessica Fei; Drew Jacoby-Senghor (2016). "Examining Racial Bias in Education: A New Approach". Educational Researcher. 45: 508–514. doi:10.3102/0013189X16683408. S2CID 56096350.
- ↑ Christi Bergin (2018-05-29). Designing a Prosocial Classroom: Fostering Collaboration in Students from PreK-12 with the Curriculum You Already Use. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 9780393711998.
- ↑ Okonofua, Jason A.; Walton, Gregory M.; Eberhardt, Jennifer L. (2016). "A Vicious Cycle: A Social–Psychological Account of Extreme Racial Disparities in School Discipline" (PDF). Perspectives on Psychological Science: A Journal of the Association for Psychological Science. Perspectives on Psychological Science. 11 (3): 381–98. doi:10.1177/1745691616635592. PMID 27217251. S2CID 22651503.
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- ↑ "The Cozzarelli Prize: 2019 Call for Nominations | PNAS". www.pnas.org. Retrieved 2019-11-01.
- ↑ "Cialdini Prize | SPSP". www.spsp.org. Retrieved 2019-11-01.
