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Language acquisition is the process by which humans acquire the capacity to perceive and comprehend language. In other words,it is how human beings gain the ability to be aware of language,to understand it,and to produce and use words and sentences to communicate.
Sign languages are languages that use the visual-manual modality to convey meaning,instead of spoken words. Sign languages are expressed through manual articulation in combination with non-manual markers. Sign languages are full-fledged natural languages with their own grammar and lexicon. Sign languages are not universal and are usually not mutually intelligible,although there are also similarities among different sign languages.
A contact sign language,or contact sign,is a variety or style of language that arises from contact between deaf individuals using a sign language and hearing individuals using an oral language. Contact languages also arise between different sign languages,although the term pidgin rather than contact sign is used to describe such phenomena.
Bilingualism,a subset of multilingualism,means having proficiency in two or more languages. A bilingual individual is traditionally defined as someone who understands and produces two or more languages on a regular basis. A bilingual individual's initial exposure to both languages may start in early childhood,e.g. before age 3,but exposure may also begin later in life,in monolingual or bilingual education. Equal proficiency in a bilingual individuals' languages is rarely seen as it typically varies by domain. For example,a bilingual individual may have greater proficiency for work-related terms in one language,and family-related terms in another language.
The three deaf-community sign languages indigenous to Vietnam are found in Ho Chi Minh City,Hanoi,and Haiphong. The HCMC and Hanoi languages especially have been influenced by the French Sign Language (LSF) once taught in schools,and have absorbed a large amount of LSF vocabulary.
Bimodal bilingualism is an individual or community's bilingual competency in at least one oral language and at least one sign language,which utilize two different modalities. An oral language consists of a vocal-aural modality versus a signed language which consists of a visual-spatial modality. A substantial number of bimodal bilinguals are children of deaf adults (CODA) or other hearing people who learn sign language for various reasons. Deaf people as a group have their own sign language(s) and culture that is referred to as Deaf,but invariably live within a larger hearing culture with its own oral language. Thus,"most deaf people are bilingual to some extent in [an oral] language in some form". In discussions of multilingualism in the United States,bimodal bilingualism and bimodal bilinguals have often not been mentioned or even considered. This is in part because American Sign Language,the predominant sign language used in the U.S.,only began to be acknowledged as a natural language in the 1960s. However,bimodal bilinguals share many of the same traits as traditional bilinguals,as well as differing in some interesting ways,due to the unique characteristics of the Deaf community. Bimodal bilinguals also experience similar neurological benefits as do unimodal bilinguals,with significantly increased grey matter in various brain areas and evidence of increased plasticity as well as neuroprotective advantages that can help slow or even prevent the onset of age-related cognitive diseases,such as Alzheimer's and dementia.
Michael Siegal,PhD,DSc was a developmental psychologist and cognitive scientist who was Marie Curie Chair in Psychology at the University of Trieste,Italy,and also a Professor of Psychology at the University of Sheffield,UK.
Laura-Ann Petitto is a cognitive neuroscientist and a developmental cognitive neuroscientist known for her research and scientific discoveries involving the language capacity of chimpanzees,the biological bases of language in humans,especially early language acquisition,early reading,and bilingualism,bilingual reading,and the bilingual brain. Significant scientific discoveries include the existence of linguistic babbling on the hands of deaf babies and the equivalent neural processing of signed and spoken languages in the human brain. She is recognized for her contributions to the creation of the new scientific discipline,called educational neuroscience. Petitto chaired a new undergraduate department at Dartmouth College,called "Educational Neuroscience and Human Development" (2002-2007),and was a Co-Principal Investigator in the National Science Foundation and Dartmouth's Science of Learning Center,called the "Center for Cognitive and Educational Neuroscience" (2004-2007). At Gallaudet University (2011–present),Petitto led a team in the creation of the first PhD in Educational Neuroscience program in the United States. Petitto is the Co-Principal Investigator as well as Science Director of the National Science Foundation and Gallaudet University’s Science of Learning Center,called the "Visual Language and Visual Learning Center (VL2)". Petitto is also founder and Scientific Director of the Brain and Language Laboratory for Neuroimaging (“BL2”) at Gallaudet University.
Ping Li is a Professor of Psychology,Linguistics,and Information Sciences and Technology at Pennsylvania State University. He specializes in language acquisition,focusing on bilingual language processing in East Asian languages and connectionist modeling. Li received a B.A. in Chinese linguistics from Peking University in 1983,an M.A. in theoretical linguistics from Peking University,a Ph.D. in psycholinguistics from Leiden University and the Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics in 1990,and completed post-doctoral fellowships at the Center for Research in Language at the University of California,San Diego and the McDonnell-Pew Center for Research in Cognitive Neuroscience in 1992. Li has been employed at the Chinese University of Hong Kong (1992–1996),the University of Richmond (1996–2006),and Pennsylvania State University (2008–present),and he has also served as a Visiting Associate Professor at Hong Kong University (2002–2003),an adjunct professor at the State Key Laboratory for Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning at Beijing Normal University (2000–present),as well as Program Director for the Perception,Action,and Cognition Program and the Cognitive Neuroscience Program at the National Science Foundation (2007–2009).
Ursula Bellugi was an American cognitive neuroscientist. She was a Distinguished Professor Emerita and director of the Laboratory for Cognitive Neuroscience at the Salk Institute in La Jolla,California. She is known for research on the neurological bases of American Sign Language and language representation in people with Williams Syndrome.
Neuroscience of multilingualism is the study of multilingualism within the field of neurology. These studies include the representation of different language systems in the brain,the effects of multilingualism on the brain's structural plasticity,aphasia in multilingual individuals,and bimodal bilinguals. Neurological studies of multilingualism are carried out with functional neuroimaging,electrophysiology,and through observation of people who have suffered brain damage.
In sign languages, the term classifier construction refers to a morphological system that can express events and states. They use handshape classifiers to represent movement,location,and shape. Classifiers differ from signs in their morphology,namely that signs consist of a single morpheme. Signs are composed of three meaningless phonological features:handshape,location,and movement. Classifiers,on the other hand,consist of many morphemes. Specifically,the handshape,location,and movement are all meaningful on their own. The handshape represents an entity and the hand's movement iconically represents the movement of that entity. The relative location of multiple entities can be represented iconically in two-handed constructions.
Sign language refers to any natural language which uses visual gestures produced by the hands and body language to express meaning. The brain's left side is the dominant side utilized for producing and understanding sign language,just as it is for speech. In 1861,Paul Broca studied patients with the ability to understand spoken languages but the inability to produce them. The damaged area was named Broca's area,and located in the left hemisphere’s inferior frontal gyrus. Soon after,in 1874,Carl Wernicke studied patients with the reverse deficits:patients could produce spoken language,but could not comprehend it. The damaged area was named Wernicke's area,and is located in the left hemisphere’s posterior superior temporal gyrus.
There are an unknown number of indigenous deaf sign languages in Laos,which may have historical connections with the languages indigenous to Vietnam and Thailand,though it is not known if they are related to each other. There is no single "Laotian Sign Language". Sign languages in use in Laos include French Sign Language,American Sign Language,Thai Sign Language,Lao Sign Language,and Home sign.
Language acquisition is a natural process in which infants and children develop proficiency in the first language or languages that they are exposed to. The process of language acquisition is varied among deaf children. Deaf children born to deaf parents are typically exposed to a sign language at birth and their language acquisition follows a typical developmental timeline. However,at least 90% of deaf children are born to hearing parents who use a spoken language at home. Hearing loss prevents many deaf children from hearing spoken language to the degree necessary for language acquisition. For many deaf children,language acquisition is delayed until the time that they are exposed to a sign language or until they begin using amplification devices such as hearing aids or cochlear implants. Deaf children who experience delayed language acquisition,sometimes called language deprivation,are at risk for lower language and cognitive outcomes. However,profoundly deaf children who receive cochlear implants and auditory habilitation early in life often achieve expressive and receptive language skills within the norms of their hearing peers;age at implantation is strongly and positively correlated with speech recognition ability. Early access to language through signed language or technology have both been shown to prepare children who are deaf to achieve fluency in literacy skills.
Ted Supalla is a deaf linguist whose research centers on sign language in its developmental and global context,including studies of the grammatical structure and evolution of American Sign Language and other sign languages.
Language deprivation in deaf and hard-of-hearing children is a delay in language development that occurs when sufficient exposure to language,spoken or signed,is not provided in the first few years of a deaf or hard of hearing child's life,often called the critical or sensitive period. Early intervention,parental involvement,and other resources all work to prevent language deprivation. Children who experience limited access to language—spoken or signed—may not develop the necessary skills to successfully assimilate into the academic learning environment. There are various educational approaches for teaching deaf and hard of hearing individuals. Decisions about language instruction is dependent upon a number of factors including extent of hearing loss,availability of programs,and family dynamics.
Rachel I. Mayberry is a language scientist known for her research on the effects of age of acquisition on sign language acquisition among deaf individuals –research that has provided evidence for a critical period in first language acquisition. She is Professor of Linguistics at University of California,San Diego (UCSD) and director of the Multimodal Language Lab.
Aniruddh (Ani) D. Patel is a cognitive psychologist known for his research on music cognition and the cognitive neuroscience of music. He is Professor of Psychology at Tufts University,Massachusetts. From a background in evolutionary biology,his work includes empirical research,theoretical studies,brain imaging techniques,and acoustical analysis applied to areas such as cognitive musicology,parallel relationships between music and language,and evolutionary musicology. Patel received a Guggenheim Fellowship in 2018 to support his work on the evolution of musical cognition.
Seana Coulson is a cognitive scientist known for her research on the neurobiology of language and studies of how meaning is constructed in human language,including experimental pragmatics,concepts,semantics,and metaphors. She is a professor in the Cognitive Science department at University of California,San Diego,where her Brain and Cognition Laboratory focuses on the cognitive neuroscience of language and reasoning.
References
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- ↑ "Prestigious science honor for SDSU professor". San Diego Union-Tribune. 2011-01-11. Retrieved 2021-03-10.
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- ↑ Emmorey, Karen. "Morphological Structure and Parsing in the Lexicon" (PDF). Retrieved 2021-03-16.
- ↑ "Neurotree - Ursula Bellugi". neurotree.org. Retrieved 2021-03-04.
- ↑ "Dr. Karen Emmorey: "The Signing Brain" | American Sign Language and Deaf Studies". web.sas.upenn.edu. Retrieved 2021-03-11.
- ↑ "NSF Award Search: Award#9809002 - Confluence of Space and Language in ASL". www.nsf.gov. Retrieved 2021-03-04.
- ↑ "SNL 2020 Annual Meeting". 2020.neurolang.org. Retrieved 2021-03-04.
- ↑ "Karen Emmorey — School of Speech, Language, and Hearing Sciences – SDSU". slhs.sdsu.edu. Retrieved 2021-03-04.
- ↑ Emmorey, Karen. "Language, Modality and the Brain".
{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires|journal=(help) - ↑ Emmorey, Karen. "Bimodal Bilingualism".
{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires|journal=(help) - ↑ Emmorey, Karen; McCullough, Stephen; Weisberg, Jill (2015-07-03). "Neural correlates of fingerspelling, text, and sign processing in deaf American Sign Language–English bilinguals". Language, Cognition and Neuroscience. 30 (6): 749–767. doi:10.1080/23273798.2015.1014924. ISSN 2327-3798. S2CID 143562382.
- ↑ "NSF Award Search: Award#9510963 - Confluence of Space and Language in ASL". www.nsf.gov. Retrieved 2021-03-11.
- ↑ "Dr. Emmorey and colleagues awarded NSF Collaborative Research Grant". ccn.sdsu.edu. Retrieved 2021-03-11.
- ↑ Neville, Helen J.; Coffey, Sharon A.; Lawson, Donald S.; Fischer, Andrew; Emmorey, Karen; Bellugi, Ursula (1997-05-01). "Neural Systems Mediating American Sign Language: Effects of Sensory Experience and Age of Acquisition". Brain and Language. 57 (3): 285–308. doi:10.1006/brln.1997.1739. ISSN 0093-934X. PMID 9126418. S2CID 9181826.
- ↑ "Karen Emmorey". scholar.google.com. Retrieved 2022-12-27.
- ↑ Fudge, Tom (22 February 2010). "Scans Show The Brain Treats Sign Language Like Speech". KPBS Public Media. Retrieved 2021-03-04.
- ↑ "Similar brain glitch found in slips of signing, speaking". EurekAlert!. Retrieved 2021-03-11.
- ↑ "It's on the tip of my finger! Sign language, deaf culture and the brain". ABC Radio National. 2010-09-07. Retrieved 2021-03-08.
- ↑ Emmorey, Karen; Kosslyn, Stephen M.; Bellugi, Ursula (1993-02-01). "Visual imagery and visual-spatial language: Enhanced imagery abilities in deaf and hearing ASL signers". Cognition. 46 (2): 139–181. doi:10.1016/0010-0277(93)90017-P. ISSN 0010-0277. PMID 8432094. S2CID 628189.
- ↑ Xu, Jiang; Gannon, Patrick J.; Emmorey, Karen; Smith, Jason F.; Braun, Allen R. (2009-12-08). "Symbolic gestures and spoken language are processed by a common neural system". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 106 (49): 20664–20669. Bibcode:2009PNAS..10620664X. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0909197106 . ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 2779203 . PMID 19923436.
- ↑ EMMOREY, KAREN; BORINSTEIN, HELSA B.; THOMPSON, ROBIN; GOLLAN, TAMAR H. (2008). "Bimodal bilingualism". Bilingualism. 11 (1): 43–61. doi:10.1017/S1366728907003203. ISSN 1366-7289. PMC 2600850 . PMID 19079743.
- ↑ van den Noort, Maurits; Struys, Esli; Bosch, Peggy; Jaswetz, Lars; Perriard, Benoît; Yeo, Sujung; Barisch, Pia; Vermeire, Katrien; Lee, Sook-Hyun; Lim, Sabina (2019). "Does the Bilingual Advantage in Cognitive Control Exist and If So, What Are Its Modulating Factors? A Systematic Review". Behavioral Sciences. 9 (3): 27. doi: 10.3390/bs9030027 . PMC 6466577 . PMID 30871228.
- ↑ Lehtonen, Minna; Soveri, Anna; Laine, Aini; Järvenpää, Janica; de Bruin, Angela; Antfolk, Jan (2018). "Is bilingualism associated with enhanced executive functioning in adults? A meta-analytic review". Psychological Bulletin. 144 (4): 394–425. doi:10.1037/bul0000142. hdl: 10810/26594 . ISSN 1939-1455. PMID 29494195. S2CID 4444068.
- ↑ Emmorey, Karen; Luk, Gigi; Pyers, Jennie E.; Bialystok, Ellen (2008). "The Source of Enhanced Cognitive Control in Bilinguals". Psychological Science. 19 (12): 1201–1206. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02224.x. ISSN 0956-7976. PMC 2677184 . PMID 19121123.
- ↑ Armstrong, David (2003). "Book review, Language, Cognition, and the Brain: Insights from Sign Language Research by Karen Emmorey". Sign Language Studies. 4: 83–90. doi:10.1353/sls.2003.0020. S2CID 145451145.
- ↑ Brentari, Diane (1996). "Book review, Language, Gesture, and Space". Language. 72: 833–836. doi:10.2307/416112. JSTOR 416112.
