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In linguistics, syntax is the study of how words and morphemes combine to form larger units such as phrases and sentences. Central concerns of syntax include word order, grammatical relations, hierarchical sentence structure (constituency), agreement, the nature of crosslinguistic variation, and the relationship between form and meaning (semantics). There are numerous approaches to syntax that differ in their central assumptions and goals.
A syntactic category is a syntactic unit that theories of syntax assume. Word classes, largely corresponding to traditional parts of speech, are syntactic categories. In phrase structure grammars, the phrasal categories are also syntactic categories. Dependency grammars, however, do not acknowledge phrasal categories.
Government and binding is a theory of syntax and a phrase structure grammar in the tradition of transformational grammar developed principally by Noam Chomsky in the 1980s. This theory is a radical revision of his earlier theories and was later revised in The Minimalist Program (1995) and several subsequent papers, the latest being Three Factors in Language Design (2005). Although there is a large literature on government and binding theory which is not written by Chomsky, Chomsky's papers have been foundational in setting the research agenda.
Generative grammar, or generativism, is a linguistic theory that regards linguistics as the study of a hypothesised innate grammatical structure. It is a biological or biologistic modification of earlier structuralist theories of linguistics, deriving from logical syntax and glossematics. Generative grammar considers grammar as a system of rules that generates exactly those combinations of words that form grammatical sentences in a given language. It is a system of explicit rules that may apply repeatedly to generate an indefinite number of sentences which can be as long as one wants them to be. The difference from structural and functional models is that the object is base-generated within the verb phrase in generative grammar. This purportedly cognitive structure is thought of as being a part of a universal grammar, a syntactic structure which is caused by a genetic mutation in humans.
In linguistics, the minimalist program is a major line of inquiry that has been developing inside generative grammar since the early 1990s, starting with a 1993 paper by Noam Chomsky.
Theta roles are the names of the participant roles associated with a predicate: the predicate may be a verb, an adjective, a preposition, or a noun. If an object is in motion or in a steady state as the speakers perceives the state, or it is the topic of discussion, it is called a theme. The participant is usually said to be an argument of the predicate. In generative grammar, a theta role or θ-role is the formal device for representing syntactic argument structure—the number and type of noun phrases—required syntactically by a particular verb. For example, the verb put requires three arguments.
In grammar, a complement is a word, phrase, or clause that is necessary to complete the meaning of a given expression. Complements are often also arguments.
In linguistics, especially within generative grammar, phi features are the morphological expression of a semantic process in which a word or morpheme varies with the form of another word or phrase in the same sentence. This variation can include person, number, gender, and case, as encoded in pronominal agreement with nouns and pronouns. Several other features are included in the set of phi-features, such as the categorical features ±N (nominal) and ±V (verbal), which can be used to describe lexical categories and case features.
The term predicate is used in two ways in linguistics and its subfields. The first defines a predicate as everything in a standard declarative sentence except the subject, and the other defines it as only the main content verb or associated predicative expression of a clause. Thus, by the first definition, the predicate of the sentence Frank likes cake is likes cake, while by the second definition, it is only the content verb likes, and Frank and cake are the arguments of this predicate. The conflict between these two definitions can lead to confusion.
In linguistics, a small clause consists of a subject and its predicate, but lacks an overt expression of tense. Small clauses have the semantic subject-predicate characteristics of a clause, and have some, but not all, properties of a constituent. Structural analyses of small clauses vary according to whether a flat or layered analysis is pursued. The small clause is related to the phenomena of raising-to-object, exceptional case-marking, accusativus cum infinitivo, and object control.
In generative grammar, the technical term operator denotes a type of expression that enters into an a-bar movement dependency. One often says that the operator "binds a variable".
In linguistics, the empty category principle (ECP) was proposed in Noam Chomsky's syntactic framework of government and binding theory. The ECP is supposed to be a universal syntactic constraint that requires certain types of empty categories, namely traces, to be properly governed.
In linguistics, an empty category, which may also be referred to as a covert category, is an element in the study of syntax that does not have any phonological content and is therefore unpronounced. Empty categories exist in contrast to overt categories which are pronounced. When representing empty categories in tree structures, linguists use a null symbol (∅) to depict the idea that there is a mental category at the level being represented, even if the word(s) are being left out of overt speech. The phenomenon was named and outlined by Noam Chomsky in his 1981 LGB framework, and serves to address apparent violations of locality of selection — there are different types of empty categories that each appear to account for locality violations in different environments. Empty categories are present in most of the world's languages, although different languages allow for different categories to be empty.
Formal semantics is the study of grammatical meaning in natural languages using formal tools from logic, mathematics and theoretical computer science. It is an interdisciplinary field, sometimes regarded as a subfield of both linguistics and philosophy of language. It provides accounts of what linguistic expressions mean and how their meanings are composed from the meanings of their parts. The enterprise of formal semantics can be thought of as that of reverse-engineering the semantic components of natural languages' grammars.
In linguistics, selection denotes the ability of predicates to determine the semantic content of their arguments. Predicates select their arguments, which means they limit the semantic content of their arguments. One sometimes draws a distinction between types of selection; one acknowledges both s(emantic)-selection and c(ategory)-selection. Selection in general stands in contrast to subcategorization: predicates both select and subcategorize for their complement arguments, whereas they only select their subject arguments. Selection is a semantic concept, whereas subcategorization is a syntactic one. Selection is closely related to valency, a term used in other grammars than the Chomskian generative grammar, for a similar phenomenon.
Andrew Radford is a British linguist known for his work in syntax and child language acquisition. His first important contribution to the field was a 1977 book on Italian syntax. He achieved international recognition in 1981 for his book Transformational Syntax, which sold over 30,000 copies and was the standard introduction to Chomsky's Government and Binding Theory for many years; and this was followed by an introduction to transformational grammar in 1988, which sold over 70,000. He has since published several books on syntax within the framework of generative grammar and the Minimalist Program of Noam Chomsky, a number of which have appeared in the series Cambridge Textbooks in Linguistics.
Raffaella Zanuttini is an Italian linguist whose research focuses primarily on syntax and linguistic variation. She is a Professor of Linguistics at Yale University in New Haven, Connecticut.
In linguistics, Cartographic syntax, or simply Cartography, is a branch of Generative syntax. The basic assumption of Cartographic syntax is that syntactic structures are built according to the same patterns in all languages of the world. It is assumed that all languages exhibit a richly articulated structure of hierarchical projections with specific meanings. Cartography belongs to the tradition of generative grammar and is regarded as a theory belonging to the Principles and Parameters theory. The founders of Cartography are the Italian linguists Luigi Rizzi and Guglielmo Cinque.
In linguistics, the syntax–semantics interface is the interaction between syntax and semantics. Its study encompasses phenomena that pertain to both syntax and semantics, with the goal of explaining correlations between form and meaning. Specific topics include scope, binding, and lexical semantic properties such as verbal aspect and nominal individuation, semantic macroroles, and unaccusativity.
Henk van Riemsdijk is a Dutch linguist and professor emeritus at Tilburg University.
References
- ↑ "prof. Liliane Haegeman". biblio.ugent.be. Retrieved 2018-12-20.
- 1 2 3 4 "Curriculum Vitae of Liliane Haegeman" (PDF). research.flw.ugent.be. Retrieved 2018-12-21.
- ↑ V., Haegeman, Liliane M. (1994). Introduction to government and binding theory (2nd ed.). Oxford, UK: B. Blackwell. ISBN 978-0631190677. OCLC 29357626.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ↑ "Introduction to Government and Binding Theory, 2nd Edition". Wiley.com. Retrieved 2018-12-20.
- ↑ "Crosslinguistic Research in Syntax and Semantics: Negation, Tense, and Clausal Architecture. Ed. Raffaella Zanuttini, Héctor Campos, Elena Herburger & Paul H. Portner. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, 2006. 247 pp. $49.95. ISBN 1-58901-080-9". Forum for Modern Language Studies. 43 (1): 97–98. 2007-01-01. doi:10.1093/fmls/cql134. ISSN 1471-6860.
- 1 2 V., Haegeman, Liliane M. (1995). The syntax of negation . Cambridge [England]: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521464925. OCLC 30516830.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ↑ Manzini, Maria Rita (2015-12-14), "Italian adverbs and discourse particles", Discourse-oriented Syntax, Linguistik Aktuell/Linguistics Today, vol. 226, John Benjamins Publishing Company, pp. 93–120, doi:10.1075/la.226.05man, ISBN 9789027257093
- ↑ Haegeman, Liliane (2010). "The internal syntax of adverbial clauses". Lingua. 120 (3): 628–648. doi:10.1016/j.lingua.2008.07.007. hdl: 1854/LU-848044 . ISSN 0024-3841.
- ↑ Haegeman, Liliane (2012-10-10), "Main Clause Phenomena and Adverbial Clauses", Adverbial Clauses, Main Clause Phenomena, and the Composition of the Left Periphery, Oxford University Press, pp. 149–194, doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199858774.003.0004, ISBN 9780199858774
- ↑ "9: Pleonastic Tet In West Flemish And The Cartography Of Subject Positions", Microvariation in Syntactic Doubling, Brill, 2008, pp. 277–300, doi:10.1163/9781848550216_011, ISBN 9781848550216
- ↑ "Prof. Liliane Haegeman – AcademiaNet". www.academia-net.org. Retrieved 2018-12-21.
- ↑ Horrocks, Geoffrey (September 1992). "Reviewed Work: Introduction to Government and Binding Theory by Liliane Haegeman". Journal of Linguistics. 28 (2): 567–568. doi:10.1017/S002222670001553X. JSTOR 4176201. S2CID 145534354.
- ↑ V., Haegeman, Liliane M. (1999). English grammar : a generative perspective. Guéron, Jacqueline. Malden, Mass.: Blackwell Publishers. ISBN 978-0631188384. OCLC 38936589.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ↑ V., Haegeman, Liliane M. (2006). Thinking syntactically : a guide to argumentation and analysis. Malden, MA: Blackwell Pub. ISBN 9781405118521. OCLC 59223779.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ↑ Artemis., Alexiadou (2007). Noun phrase in the generative perspective. Haegeman, Liliane M. V., Stavrou, Melita. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. ISBN 9783110207491. OCLC 471132663.
- ↑ V., Haegeman, Liliane M. (2012-10-10). Adverbial clauses, main clause phenomena, and composition of the left periphery. Oxford. ISBN 9780199858781. OCLC 865508564.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
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