Outdoor education

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Outdoor education is organized learning that takes place in the outdoors, typically during school camping trips. Outdoor education programs sometimes involve residential or journey wilderness-based experiences in which students participate in a variety of adventurous challenges and outdoor activities such as hiking, climbing, canoeing, ropes courses and group games. Outdoor education draws upon the philosophy, theory, and practices of experiential education and environmental education.

Contents

A group of Outward Bound participants with physical disabilities after completing a ropes course, c. 1996. CircleOfFriends.jpg
A group of Outward Bound participants with physical disabilities after completing a ropes course, c. 1996.

Scope

Outdoor education has diverse goals and practices, but always involves learning about, in, and through the outdoors.

Definitions

Outdoor education can be simply defined as experiential learning in, for, or about the outdoors. The term 'outdoor education', however, is used broadly to refer to a range of organized activities that take place in a variety of ways in predominantly outdoor environments. Common definitions of outdoor education are difficult to achieve because interpretations vary according to culture, philosophy, and local conditions. [1]

Outdoor education is often referred to as synonymous with outdoor learning, outdoor school, forest schools and wilderness education. Outdoor education often uses or draws upon related elements and/or informs related areas, such as teaching students how to pitch tents and cook over a campfire. The hallmark of outdoor education is its focus on the "outdoor" side of this education; whereas adventure education would focus on the adventure side and environmental education would focus on environmental. Expeditionary education involves expeditions into wilderness "where man is but a visitor." All of these activities typically involve experiential education.

Education outside the classroom

Freshmen at Wyoming Catholic College hike in the Teton Mountains during a three-week backpacking course. COR hike.jpg
Freshmen at Wyoming Catholic College hike in the Teton Mountains during a three-week backpacking course.

"Education outside the classroom" describes school curriculum learning, other than with a class of students sitting in a room with a teacher and books. It encompasses biology field trips and searching for insects in the school garden, as well as indoor activities like observing stock control in a local shop, or visiting a museum. It is a concept currently enjoying a revival because of the recognition of benefits from the more active style. The Education and Skills Committee [2] of the House of Commons of the United Kingdom has reported that it brings history and art to life, develops social skills, and clearly enhances geography and science.,. [3] There are key policies in place for outdoor learning in England, [4] Scotland [5] and Wales.

Despite the evidence supporting an extension of educational camping and outdoor learning for children, there are a number of obstacles in the way. One of these obstacles is risk aversion amongst teachers, parents and others, raising reluctance to such diverse and physical tasks. The journalist Tim Gill has written about parental and institutional risk aversion affecting many activities with children in his book "No Fear". [6] Another obstacle is the perceived high cost of facilitating outdoor learning. Creating an outdoor learning environment needn't cost a great deal, however. The UK Early Years Framework Stage, which outlines best practice in Early Years teaching, asserts that: "Outdoor learning is more effective when adults focus on what children need to be able to do rather than what children need to have. An approach that considers experiences rather than equipment places children at the centre of learning and ensures that individual children's learning and developmental needs are taken account of and met effectively" [7]

Linda Tallent, a UK-based educational consultant who has worked extensively with schools to develop their outdoor spaces into learning environments, agrees. She believes that by focusing on activities and skill development, it is possible to develop an outdoor learning curriculum on a 'shoe string'. [8] She cites a comment by Will Nixon, who reminds readers that 'Using the real world is the way learning has happened for 99.9% of human existence. Only in the last hundred years have we put it into a little box called a classroom.'. [9] Tallent also refers to evidence from a number of studies that the most effective way of learning is through participation, and calls on educators to make a special effort to create opportunities for children to participate in their learning.

Aims

Some typical aims of outdoor education are to:

Outdoor education spans the three domains of self, others, and the natural world. The relative emphasis of these three domains varies from one program to another. An outdoor education program can, for example, emphasize one (or more) of these aims to:

Outdoor education is often used as a means to create a deeper sense of place for people in a community. Sense of place is manifested through the understanding and connection that one has with the area in which they reside. Sense of place is an important aspect of environmentalism as well as environmental justice because it makes the importance of sustaining a particular ecosystem that much more personal to an individual. [10]

History

Field trip: school children outdoors listening to man, c. 1899, US Field-trip - school children outdoors listening to man.png
Field trip: school children outdoors listening to man, c. 1899, US

Modern outdoor education owes its beginnings to separate initiatives. Organized camping was evident in the late nineteenth century and early twentieth century in Europe, the UK, the US, Australia, and New Zealand. The Scouting movement, established in the UK in 1907 by Robert Baden-Powell, employs non-formal education with an emphasis on practical outdoor activities. The first Outward Bound centre at Aberdyfi in Wales was established during the Second World War. The Forest schools of Denmark are examples of European programs with similar aims and objectives.

Key outdoor education pioneers include Kurt Hahn, a German educator who founded schools such as the Schule Schloss Salem in Germany; the United World Colleges movement, the Duke of Edinburgh Award scheme (which emphasizes community service, craftsmanship skills, physical skill, and outdoor expeditions), and the Outward Bound movement.

The second half of the twentieth century saw rapid growth of outdoor education in all sectors (state, voluntary, and commercial) with an ever-widening range of client groups and applications. In this period Outward Bound spread to over 40 countries, including the US in the 1960s. Other US based outdoor education programs include Project Adventure and the National Outdoor Leadership School (NOLS). Project Adventure focuses on day use of ropes courses. NOLS uses the outdoor setting to train leaders for outdoor programs and for other settings including training every new US astronaut and 10% of the US Naval Academy. The Association for Experiential Education is a professional association for "experiential" educators. The Wilderness Education Association (WEA) is a consortium of college outdoor education programs with a standard curriculum based on an academic model. (See also North America in the Around the World section.)

A history of outdoor education in the UK has been documented by Lyn Cook (1999), [11] and a history of outdoor education in New Zealand has been published in Pip Lynch's Camping in the Curriculum (2007). [12]

Philosophy and theory

Philosophy and theory about outdoor education tends to emphasize the effect of natural environments on human beings, the educative role of stress and challenge, and experiential learning. [1]

One view is that participants are at their "rawest" level when outdoors because they are "stripped" of many of the conveniences of modern life. Participants can become more aware that they are part of a greater ecosystem and are not as bound by social customs and norms. In essence participants can be true to themselves and more able to see others as people regardless of race, class, religion etc. Outdoor education also helps instill the basic elements of teamwork because participants often need to work together and rely on others. For many people a high ropes course or an outdoor activity may stretch their comfort zone and cause them to challenge themselves physically which in turn can lead to challenging oneself mentally.[ citation needed ]

The roots of modern outdoor education can be found in the philosophical work of:

The Outward Bound Process Model, adapted from Walsh and Golins (1976). Outward Bound Process Model.png
The Outward Bound Process Model, adapted from Walsh and Golins (1976).

Foundational work on the philosophy of outdoor education includes work by:

A wide range of social science and specific outdoor education theories and models have been applied in an effort to better understand outdoor education. Amongst the key theoretical models or concepts are:

Around the world

Outdoor education occurs, in one form or another, in most if not all countries of the world. However, it can be implemented very differently, depending on the cultural context. Some countries, for example, view outdoor education as synonymous with environmental education, whilst other countries treat outdoor education and environmental education as distinct. Modern forms of outdoor education are most prevalent in the UK, US, Australia, New Zealand, Europe and to some extent Asia and Africa.[ citation needed ] [14] Many outdoor Education programs were cancelled in 2020 due to the COVID-19 Pandemic.

UK

The English Outdoor Council, an umbrella body, defines outdoor education as a way for students and teachers to be fully engaged in a lesson, all the while embracing the outdoors. The EOC deems outdoor education as "providing depth to the curriculum and makes an important contribution to students' physical, personal and social education.". [15] In the UK, Learning through Landscapes champion the use of School Grounds as a cost effective, easily accessible place of learning and play. Forest School. [16] is also fashionable in the UK, providing a very specialist approach to personal development within the wider context of Outdoor Learning.

Australia and New Zealand

Throughout Australia & New Zealand many school students undertake outdoor / outdoor and environmental education. Aust / NZ have several outdoor education degrees and vocational outdoor recreation programs. Once teachers and outdoor leaders have completed their studies, many have opportunities to work in schools, private organizations or various outdoor education centres in either country. Outdoor Education is mandated as part of the New Zealand Health and Physical Education as one of the 7 key areas of learning. The Australian Curriculum Assessment and Reporting Authority with support from Outdoor Education Australia has developed curriculum documents to support schools to conduct outdoor education throughout the country primarily through the learning areas of Science, Health and Physical Education and Humanities.

Canada

Environmental education, most notably outdoor education in Canada is seen through outdoor camp and residential programs, school-based programs and commercial travel operations. Outdoor education in Canada is based around "hard" technical skills—often travel and camping skills—and the "soft"—group skills and personal growth qualities—are blended with, one might say, the "green" and "warm" skills of a complementary eco-adventure focus." [17] Adventures are found whether one is partaking in environmental awareness or team-building workshops throughout Canada.

Denmark

Denmark is known as one of the more environmentally conscious countries in the developed world. One of the ways in which this presents itself, is through the forest school system that exists there. Children are taught in the woods using nature and animals to learn about basic environmental education as well as the fundamental elementary education that is required. [18]

Finland

At Finnish schools, the term “outdoor education” represents teaching and learning that takes place outside the classroom with the aim to achieve goals in the National core curriculum for basic education as and in the National core curriculum for upper secondary schools. In the upper secondary schools (students aged 16–18), the theme is “Sustainable development”. Students are encouraged to pursue a sustainable lifestyle, to take action for sustainable development, and to examine the challenges of SD. [19] Some vocational institutes offer secondary lever degree in Nature and Environmental Studies focusing mainly to tourism and experience industries. [20] Humak University of Applied Sciences offers a bachelor's degree in Adventure and Outdoor Education in its English language programme focusing on the technical skills for the adventure sports and pedagogy, tourism and entrepreneurship. Annually 20 students are taken in to the programme. [21] In addition Humak University of Applied Sciences offers updating education for teachers and persons active in adventure sports in their Open University of Applied Sciences. [22]

France

Alain Kerjean founded in 1986 "Hors Limites-Outward Bound France", adaptation to adults of active pedagogy and introduces in France apprentissage par l'expérience movement. The first Latin country member of this network. Honnor president : SAS Prince Albert of Monaco. In 1994 was founded two bodies : Association Apprendre par l'expérience (youth), and SARL Expérientiel (corporate). From 2008, Alain Kerjean develops Outdoor Education for universities in Romania and advises in France training organizations wishing to design programs based on this pedagogy. His books and articles make available Anglo-Saxon research and publications on the subject to the French public.[ citation needed ]

Spain

The first major and highly publicized outdoor learning project was Ruta Quetzal. Launched with assistance of king Juan Carlos in 1979, it was heavily focused on exploring cross-Atlantic Hispanidad cultural links and for decades was managed by the adventurer and media celebrity, Miguel de la Quadra-Salcedo. The project is ongoing. There are numerous similar though less ambitious schemes currently operational, e.g. Rumbo al Sur, annual tours in Africa managed by a TV reality-show star Telmo Aldaz de la Quadra-Salcedo. [23]

Research and critical views

There is much anecdotal evidence about benefits of outdoor education experiences; teachers, for example, often speak of the improvement they have in relationships with students following a trip. However, hard evidence showing that outdoor education has a demonstrable long-term effect on behaviour or educational achievement is harder to identify; this may be in part because of the difficulty involved in conducting studies which separate out the effects of outdoor education on meaningful outcomes.

A major meta-analysis of 97 empirical studies indicated a positive overall effect of adventure education programs on outcomes such as self-concept, leadership, and communication skills. [24] This study also indicated that there appeared to be ongoing positive effects. The largest empirical study of the effects of outdoor education programs (mostly Outward Bound programs) found small-moderate short-term positive impacts on a diverse range of generic life skills, with the strongest outcomes for longer, expedition-based programs with motivated young adults, and partial long-term retention of these gains. [25]

In "Adventure in a Bun", Chris Loynes [26] has suggested that outdoor education is increasingly an entertainment park consumption experience. In a paper entitled "The Generative Paradigm", [27] Loynes has also called for an increase in "creativity, spontaneity and vitality".

Outdoor education has been found more beneficial to those students who find classroom learning more challenging[ citation needed ]. Maynard, Waters & Clement (2013) [28] found that, resonating with their previous findings, the teachers in their study reported "that when engaged in child-initiated activity in the outdoor environment, over half of the children who in the classroom were perceived to be 'underachieving' appeared to behave differently" (p. 221). Their work aims to support the notion that the more natural outdoor spaces in which child-initiated activities take place both directly and indirectly diminish the perception of underachievement. This is important because a number of studies have shown that expectations based on perception of students is important for student learning.

This may also be due to a non-academic family background, or a personal psychological trait such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.

When German children from forest kindergartens went to primary school, teachers observed a significant improvement in reading, writing, mathematics, social interactions and many other areas. [29] A yearlong study was done where a group of 9th and 12th grade students learned through outdoor education. The focus was on raising the critical thinking skills of the students as a measure of improvement, where critical thinking was defined to be, "the process of purposeful self-regulatory judgment and decision making". The problem solving capabilities included the ability of students to interpret, to analyze, to evaluate, to infer, to explain and to self-regulate. Researchers found that both 9th and 12th graders scored higher than the control groups in critical thinking by a significant amount. [30] Using the Environment as an Integrating Context for learning (EIC) is the foundation of a substantial report [31] which found benefits in learning outside the classroom on standardized measures of academic achievement in reading, writing, math, science, and social studies; reduced discipline problems; and increased enthusiasm for learning and pride in accomplishments.

There are several important trends and changing circumstances for outdoor education, including:

See also

Activities

Associations

Organizations

People

Topics

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Outward Bound</span> International educational organization, originally British; creator of outdoor experiences

Outward Bound (OB) is an international network of outdoor education organizations that was founded in the United Kingdom by Lawrence Holt and Kurt Hahn in 1941. Today there are organizations, called schools, in over 35 countries which are attended by more than 150,000 people each year. Outward Bound International is a non-profit membership and licensing organisation for the international network of Outward Bound schools. The Outward Bound Trust is an educational charity established in 1946 to operate the schools in the United Kingdom. Separate organizations operate the schools in each of the other countries in which Outward Bound operates.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">National Outdoor Leadership School</span> Non-profit outdoor education school

NOLS is a non-profit outdoor education school based in the United States dedicated to teaching environmental ethics, technical outdoor skills, wilderness medicine, risk management and judgment, and leadership on extended wilderness expeditions and in traditional classrooms. It was previously known as the National Outdoor Leadership School, but in 2015, this label was retired in favor of the independonym "NOLS". The "NOLS" mission is to be the leading source and teacher of wilderness skills and leadership that serve people and the environment. NOLS runs courses on six continents, with courses in a variety of wilderness environments and for almost any age group.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Experiential education</span> Philosophy of education

Experiential education is a philosophy of education that describes the process that occurs between a teacher and student that infuses direct experience with the learning environment and content. The term is not interchangeable with experiential learning; however experiential learning is a sub-field and operates under the methodologies of experiential education. The Association for Experiential Education regards experiential education as "a philosophy that informs many methodologies in which educators purposefully engage with learners in direct experience and focused reflection in order to increase knowledge, develop skills, clarify values, and develop people's capacity to contribute to their communities". Experiential education is the term for the philosophy and educational progressivism is the movement which it informed. The Journal of Experiential Education publishes peer-reviewed empirical and theoretical academic research within the field.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Experiential learning</span> Learn by reflect on active involvement

Experiential learning (ExL) is the process of learning through experience, and is more narrowly defined as "learning through reflection on doing". Hands-on learning can be a form of experiential learning, but does not necessarily involve students reflecting on their product. Experiential learning is distinct from rote or didactic learning, in which the learner plays a comparatively passive role. It is related to, but not synonymous with, other forms of active learning such as action learning, adventure learning, free-choice learning, cooperative learning, service-learning, and situated learning.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Summer camp</span> Supervised program for children conducted during the summer months

A summer camp or sleepaway camp is a supervised program for children conducted during the summer months in some countries. Children and adolescents who attend summer camps are known as campers. Summer school is usually a part of the academic curriculum for a student to make up work not accomplished during the academic year.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Environmental education</span> Branch of pedagogy

Environmental education (EE) refers to organized efforts to teach how natural environments function, and particularly, how human beings can manage behavior and ecosystems to live sustainably. It is a multi-disciplinary field integrating disciplines such as biology, chemistry, physics, ecology, earth science, atmospheric science, mathematics, and geography.

Forest school is an outdoor education delivery model in which students visit natural spaces to learn personal, social and technical skills. It has been defined as "an inspirational process that offers children, young people and adults regular opportunities to achieve and develop confidence through hands-on learning in a woodland environment". Forest school is both a pedagogy and a physical entity, with the use often being interchanged. The plural "schools" is often used when referring to a number of groups or sessions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Adventure therapy</span> Type of psychotherapy

Adventure therapy is a form of psychotherapy created as early as the 1960s. It is influenced by a variety of learning and psychological theories. Experiential education is the underlying philosophy.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Outward Bound Singapore</span>

Outward Bound Singapore is part of the network of Outward Bound centres worldwide. Established in 1967 as Outward Bound School of Singapore (OBSS), OBS has a campus located on the island of Pulau Ubin.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">COPE (Boy Scouts of America)</span>

COPE is an acronym for Challenging Outdoor Personal Experience, a program in the Boy Scouts of America. It consists of group initiative games, trust events, and high and low ropes course. Some activities involve a group challenge, while others develop individual skills and agility. Participants climb, swing, balance, jump, rappel, and devise solutions to a variety of problems.

Adventure education is the promotion of learning through adventure centered experiences.

Outward Bound USA (OBUSA) is a non-profit organization providing experiential education in the United States through a network of regional schools, especially in wilderness settings. Outward Bound counts among its desired outcomes the development of self-awareness, self-confidence, leadership skills, environmental and social responsibility.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Garden-based learning</span>

Garden-based learning (GBL) encompasses programs, activities and projects in which the garden is the foundation for integrated learning, in and across disciplines, through active, engaging, real-world experiences that have personal meaning for children, youth, adults and communities in an informal outside learning setting. Garden-based learning is an instructional strategy that utilizes the garden as a teaching tool.

Expeditionary education is often associated with adventure education, outdoor education, environmental education or experiential education and refers specifically to learning associated with exploration and journey-based experiences or expeditions within these fields. Usually involving elements of challenge, adventure and leadership, expeditionary education can take place in a variety of settings including wilderness, classrooms and even virtual spaces. Participants in expeditionary education can be directly involved in the expedition, or may be linked to expeditions undertaken by others.

Boston Schoolyard Initiative (BSI) is a public private partnership that works to transform the conditions of public schoolyards of Boston Public Schools. BSI, in collaboration with private funders, the City of Boston and Boston Public Schools, uses a community participatory design process to change neglected and unwelcome schoolyards into centers for active school and community use.

Outward Bound Costa Rica (OBCR) (formerly known as "Costa Rica Rainforest Outward Bound School" or CRROBS) is a non-profit experiential learning and outdoor education organization based in San José, Costa Rica. It is a charter of Outward Bound International (OBI).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Carrie Murray Nature Center</span>

Carrie Murray Nature Center (CMNC) is operated by Baltimore City Recreation and Parks. CMNC offers environmental education programs for children, families, and adults as Baltimore City's only nature center. A native live animal collection, outdoor bird aviary, and indoor exhibits are features of the center, which is nestled in the expansive and historic Gwynns Falls/Leakin Park, the largest urban forested park east of the Mississippi River.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Learning environment</span> Term in education

The term learning environment can refer to an educational approach, cultural context, or physical setting in which teaching and learning occur. The term is commonly used as a more definitive alternative to "classroom", but it typically refers to the context of educational philosophy or knowledge experienced by the student and may also encompass a variety of learning cultures—its presiding ethos and characteristics, how individuals interact, governing structures, and philosophy. In a societal sense, learning environment may refer to the culture of the population it serves and of their location. Learning environments are highly diverse in use, learning styles, organization, and educational institution. The culture and context of a place or organization includes such factors as a way of thinking, behaving, or working, also known as organizational culture. For a learning environment such as an educational institution, it also includes such factors as operational characteristics of the instructors, instructional group, or institution; the philosophy or knowledge experienced by the student and may also encompass a variety of learning cultures—its presiding ethos and characteristics, how individuals interact, governing structures, and philosophy in learning styles and pedagogies used; and the societal culture of where the learning is occurring. Although physical environments do not determine educational activities, there is evidence of a relationship between school settings and the activities that take place there.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Learning space</span> Physical setting for a learning environment

Learning space or learning setting refers to a physical setting for a learning environment, a place in which teaching and learning occur. The term is commonly used as a more definitive alternative to "classroom," but it may also refer to an indoor or outdoor location, either actual or virtual. Learning spaces are highly diverse in use, configuration, location, and educational institution. They support a variety of pedagogies, including quiet study, passive or active learning, kinesthetic or physical learning, vocational learning, experiential learning, and others. As the design of a learning space impacts the learning process, it is deemed important to design a learning space with the learning process in mind.

References

  1. 1 2 Outdoor recreation. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.trunity.net/lifegermination/topics/view/23121/
  2. ↑ Education and Skills Committee, House of Commons
  3. ↑ Education Outside the Classroom (PDF). House of Commons. 2005.
  4. ↑ "Outdoor Learning Policies England| Learning through Landscapes".
  5. ↑ "Outdoor learning in Scotland | Learning through Landscapes".
  6. ↑ Gill, Tim (2007). No fear: Growing up in a Risk Averse society (PDF). Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation. p. 81. ISBN   978-1-903080-08-5. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-03-06.
  7. ↑ Early Years Framework Stage 'Effective Practice: Outdoor Learning", 2007 "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on July 1, 2008. Retrieved September 24, 2010.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  8. ↑ Linda Tallent, 'Outdoor Learning', 2007
  9. ↑ Will Nixon, 'Letting Nature Shape Childhood', The Amicus Journal, Fall 1997, in Linda Tallent 'Outdoor Learning' 2007
  10. ↑ Kudryavtsev, Alex; Krasny, Marianne E.; Stedman, Richard C. (2012-04-01). "The impact of environmental education on sense of place among urban youth". Ecosphere. 3 (4): art29. doi: 10.1890/ES11-00318.1 . ISSN   2150-8925.
  11. ↑ Cook L. (1999). The 1944 Education Act and outdoor education: from policy to practice. History of Education, 28 (2), 157-172. ISBN   0-473-10583-7
  12. ↑ Lynch, P. (?). Camping in the Curriculum: A History of Outdoor Education in New Zealand Schools. PML publications, Lincoln University, Canterbury, New Zealand.
  13. 1 2 Walsh, V., & Golins, G. L. (1976). The exploration of the Outward Bound process . Denver, CO: Colorado Outward Bound School.
  14. ↑ Lee, Chermaine (2022-01-24). "Why some Asian schools are going wild". www.bbc.com. Retrieved 2022-01-24.
  15. ↑ English Outdoor Council. (n.d.). "High Quality Outdoor Education" (PDF). English Outdoor Council. Retrieved July 19, 2013.
  16. ↑ "What Is Forest School?".
  17. ↑ Henderson, B., & Potter, G. T. (n.d.). Outdoor Adventure Education in Canada: Seeking The Country Way Back In. 227-242.
  18. ↑ "Early Nature Lessons in Denmark's Forest Preschools -The official website of Denmark". denmark.dk. Retrieved 2016-10-06.
  19. ↑ "Opetussuunnitelma ja ympäristökasvatus - LYKE-verkosto". finland.fi. Retrieved 2018-01-05.
  20. ↑ "Luonto ja ympäristöalan perustutkinto 2014" (PDF). finland.fi. Retrieved 2018-01-05.
  21. ↑ "Bachelor's Degree in Adventure and Outdoor Education". finland.fi. Retrieved 2018-01-05.
  22. ↑ "Suomen makein avoimen amk:n opintojakso? Seikkailukasvatus Humakissa". finland.fi. Retrieved 2018-01-05.
  23. ↑ La expedición «Madrid Rumbo al Sur» reconoce problemas de financiación , [in:] ABC 10.09.2013
  24. ↑ Hattie, J. A., Marsh, H. W., Neill, J. T. & Richards, G. E. (1997). Adventure education and Outward Bound: Out-of-class experiences that have a lasting effect. Review of Educational Research, 67, 43-87.
  25. ↑ Neill, J. T. (2008). Enhancing personal effectiveness: Impacts of outdoor education programs . PhD thesis. Sydney: University of Western Sydney.
  26. ↑ Loynes, Chris (1998). "Adventure in a Bun" (PDF). Journal of Experiential Education. 21 (1): 35–39. doi:10.1177/105382599802100108. S2CID   143638838.
  27. ↑ Loynes, Chris (2002). "The Generative Paradigm" (PDF). Journal of Adventure Education and Outdoor Learning. 2 (2): 113–125. doi:10.1080/14729670285200221. S2CID   51831743.
  28. ↑ Maynard, Trisha; Waters, Jane; Clement, Jennifer (2013). "Child-initiated learning, the outdoor environment and the 'underachieving' child". Early Years. 33 (3): 212. doi:10.1080/09575146.2013.771152. S2CID   143947914.
  29. ↑ Gorges R. Waldkindergartenkinder Im Ersten Schuljahr Archived May 16, 2011, at the Wayback Machine (in German)
  30. ↑ Ernest; Monroe (2004). "The effects of environment-based education on students' critical thinking skills and disposition toward critical thinking". Environmental Education Research. 10 (4): 522. Retrieved 14 March 2014.
  31. ↑ Lieberman, Gerald A.; Hoody, Linda L. (1998). Closing the Achievement Gap (PDF). State Education and Environment Round Table.
  32. ↑ The Scout Movement is the most widespread associated network of outdoor adventure-based education implementers.
  33. ↑ Aside from Scouting affiliates, there also have been organizations which sprouted out and away from the root Scout idea.
  34. ↑ Books by Daniel Carter Beard
  35. ↑ Block, Nelson, 2000, A Thing of the Spirit: the life of E. Urner Goodman, Boy Scouts of America.
  36. ↑ Davis, Kenneth (PhD history, U Virginia; Colonel, US Army), The Brotherhood of Cheerful Service: a history of the Order of the Arrow, Boy Scouts of America, 1990, 1995, 2000. ISBN   0839549989. ISBN   978-0839549987.
  37. ↑ Birth of Outward Bound
  38. ↑ Block, Nelson, "William Hillcourt: Scoutmaster to the World", The Journal of Scouting History.
  39. ↑ The Way of Nature Fellowship
  40. ↑ John Milton Archived August 23, 2012, at the Wayback Machine
  41. ↑ Miner, Joshua & Joseph Boldt, Outward Bound USA: learning through experience in adventure-based education, William Morrow & Co, 1981.
  42. ↑ Miner, Joshua & Joseph Boldt, Outward Bound USA: Crew, Not Passengers, Mountaineers Books, 2002. ISBN   978-0-89886-874-6
  43. ↑ Charles Alexander Eastman Archived May 28, 2010, at the Wayback Machine
  44. ↑ Martinez, David, 2009 Dakota Philosopher, St. Paul, Minnesota: Minnesota Historical Society Press, ISBN   0-87351-629-X.
  45. ↑ Outdoor Education Group Archived June 21, 2012, at the Wayback Machine
  46. ↑ Project Adventure Evolution
  47. ↑ Witt, David, 2010, Ernest Thompson Seton: The Life and Legacy of an Artist and Conservationist, Gibbs Smith. ISBN   1423603915. ISBN   978-1423603917.
  48. ↑ Seton, Julia, By a Thousand Fires, 1967.


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