Patient advocacy

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Patient advocacy is a process in health care concerned with advocacy for patients, survivors, and caregivers. The patient advocate [1] may be an individual or an organization, concerned with healthcare standards or with one specific group of disorders. The terms patient advocate and patient advocacy can refer both to individual advocates providing services that organizations also provide, and to organizations whose functions extend to individual patients. Some patient advocates are independent (with no conflict-of-loyalty issues) and some work for the organizations that are directly responsible for the patient's care.

Contents

Typical advocacy activities are the following: safeguarding patients from errors, incompetence and misconduct; patient rights, matters of privacy, confidentiality or informed consent, patient representation, awareness-building, support and education of patients, survivors and their carers. [2]

Patient advocates give a voice to patients, survivors and their carers on healthcare-related (public) fora, informing the public, the political and regulatory world, health care providers (hospitals, insurers, pharmaceutical companies etc.), organizations of health care professionals, the educational world, and the medical and pharmaceutical research communities.

Nurses can perform a de facto role of patient advocacy, though this role may be limited due their position in an organization. [2] Patients can advocate for themselves through self-advocacy and the ability for this self-advocacy can be learnt or improved through training. [3]

History

Patient advocacy, as a hospital-based practice, grew out of this patient rights movement: patient advocates (often called patient representatives) were needed to protect and enhance the rights of patients at a time when hospital stays were long and acute conditions—heart disease, stroke and cancer—contributed to the boom in hospital growth. Health care reformers at the time critiqued this growth by quoting Roemer's law: a built hospital bed is a bed likely to be filled. [4] And more radical health analysts coined the term health empires [5] to refer to the increasing power of these large teaching institutions that linked hospital care with medical education, putting one in the service of the other, arguably losing the patient-centered focus in the process. It was not surprising, then, that patient advocacy, like patient care, focused on the hospital stay, while health advocacy took a more critical perspective of a health care system in which power was concentrated on the top in large medical teaching centers and a dominance of the medical profession. [6] [7]

Patient advocacy in the United States emerged in the 1950s in the context of cancer research and treatment. [8] In those early days of cancer treatment, patients and their families raised ethical concerns around the tests, treatment practices, and clinical research being conducted. For instance, they expressed concern to the National Institute of Health (NIH) about the cruelty of the repeated collection of blood samples (for blood marrow examination) and raised questions about whether this was more harmful than beneficial to the patient. [8] Sidney Farber, a Harvard physician and cancer researcher, coined the term total care, to describe the treatment of children with leukemia. [9] Under total care, a physician "treated the family as a whole, factoring in its psychosocial and economic needs", rather than focusing purely on physical health concerns. [9] Previous researchers had dealt with concerns raised by families, because physicians emphasized patient physical health rather than the inclusion of bedside manners with the families. The practice of patient advocacy emerged to support and represent patients in this medico-legal and ethical discussion.

The 1970s were also an important time in the US for patient advocacy as the Patient Rights movement grew. As a major advocacy organization during the time, the National Welfare Rights Organization's (NWRO) materials for a patient's bill of rights influenced many additional organizations and writings, including hospital accreditation standards for the Joint Commission in 1970 and the American Hospital Association's Patient Bill of Rights in 1972. [10] [11] The utilization of advocates by individual patients gained momentum in the early 2000s in the US, and Australia 10 years later, and the profession is now perceived as a mainstream option to optimize outcomes in both hospital- and community-based healthcare.

Self-advocacy

Communication skills, information-seeking skills and problem-solving skills were found to correlate with measures of a patient's ability to advocate for themselves. [3] : 51  Conceptualizations of the qualities have defined self-knowledge, communication skills, knowledge of rights, and leadership as components of advocacy. [3] : 50 

A number of interventions have been tried to improve patients' effectiveness at advocating for themselves. Studies have found peer-led programs where an individual with a condition is taught interview skills were effective in improving self-advocacy. Writing interventions, where people with conditions received training and practiced writing essays advocating for themselves, were shown to improve self-advocacy. [3] : 52 

Patient advocacy processes

At a conceptual level patient advocacy consists of three processes: valuing, apprising and interceding. Valuing consists of understanding the patient's unique attributes and desires. [12] : 35  Apprising consists of informing the patient and advising the patient. [12] : 36  Interceding consists of interacting with processes to ensure that the patient's unique attributes and desires are represented in these processes, [12] : 36  and may include interceding in family interactions as well as healthcare processes. [12] : 36 

Examples of patient advocacy include:

Nurse advocacy

The American Nurses Association (ANA) includes advocacy in its definition of nursing:

Nursing is the protection, promotion, and optimization of health and abilities, prevention of illness and injury, facilitation of healing, alleviation of suffering through the diagnosis and treatment of human response, and advocacy in the care of individuals, families, groups, communities, and populations. [19] [20] [21]

Advocacy in nursing finds its theoretical basis in nursing ethics. For instance, the ANA's Code of Ethics for Nurses includes language relating to patient advocacy: [22]

Several factors can lead a patient to use nurses for advocacy, including impairments in their ability to express wishes such as die to speech impairments or limited consciousness, lack of independence due to illiteracy, sociocultural weakness, or separation from friends or family caused by hospitalization. Nurses are more able to advocate if they are independent, professionally committed, and have self-confidence as well as having legal and professional knowledge, as well as knowing a patient's wishes. The act of patient advocacy improved nurses' sense of professional well-being and self-concept, job motivation and job satisfaction, and enhances the public image of nurses; however, advocating for a patient could have social and professional consequences. [2] : 146 

Conflict of interests between a nurse's perceived professional responsibilities and their responsibilities to the patient can be a barrier to advocacy. [23] : 174  Additionally, a nurse is concerned about all of the patients they care for rather any individual patient. [24] : 190  Gadow and Curtis argue that the role of patient advocacy in nursing is to facilitate a patient's informed consent through decision-making, but in mental health nursing there is a conflict between the patient's right to autonomy and nurses' legal and professional duty to protect the patient and the community from harm, since patients may experience delusions or confusion which affect their decision-making. In such instances, the nurse may engage in persuasion and negotiation in order to prevent the risk that they perceive. [24] : 192 

Private advocacy

Private advocates (also known as independent patient/health/health care advocates) often work alongside the advocates that work for hospitals. As global healthcare systems started to become more complex, and as the role of the cost of care continues to place more of a burden on patients, a new profession of private professional advocacy began to take root in the mid-2000s. At that time, two organizations were founded to support the work of these new private practitioners, professional patient advocates. [25] The National Association of Healthcare Advocacy Consultants was started to provide broad support for advocacy. [26] The Alliance of Professional Health Advocates was started to support the business of being a private advocate. [27] Some regions require that those detained for the treatment of mental health disorders are given access to independent mental health advocates who are not involved in the patient's treatment. [28] [29] : 20 

Proponents of private advocacy, such as Australian advocate Dorothy Kamaker and L. Bradley Schwartz, have noted that the patient advocates employed by healthcare facilities have an inherent conflict of interest in situations where the needs of an individual patient are at odds with the business interests of an advocate's employer. Kamaker argues that hiring a private advocate eliminates this conflict because the private advocate "…has only one master and very clear priorities." [30]

Kamaker founded patientadvocates.com.au in 2013 and followed with disabilityhealthsupport.com.au in 2021 when research revealed that vulnerable groups achieved sub-optimal outcomes and encountered barriers and prejudice in the mainstream health and hospital systems in Australia. "Based on the limited data available, we know that the overall health of people with disabilities is much worse than that of the general population", with "people with disabilities rarely identified as a priority population group in public health policy and practice". [31] Patients supported by advocates have been shown to experience fewer treatment errors and require fewer readmissions post discharge. In Australia there has been some movement by private health insurers to engage private patient advocates to reduce costs, improve outcomes and expedite return to work for employees.

Schwartz is the founder and president of GNANOW.org, where he states, "Everyone employed by a health care company is limited to what they can accomplish for patients and families. Hospital-employed patient advocates, navigators, social workers, and discharge planners are no different. They became health care professionals because they are passionate about helping people. But they have heavy caseloads and many work long hours with limited resources. Independent Patient Advocates work one-on-one with patients and loved ones to explore options, improve communication, and coordinate with overworked hospital staff. In fact, many Independent Patient Advocates used to work for hospitals and health care companies before they decided to work directly for patients." [32]

Patient advocacy organizations

Patient advocacy organizations, PAO, or patient advocacy groups [33] are organizations that exist to represent the interests of people with a particular disease. Patient advocacy organizations may fund research and influence national health policy through lobbying. [34] : 5  Examples in the US include the American Cancer Society, American Heart Association, and National Organization for Rare Disorders. [35] : 345 

Some patient advocacy groups receive donations from pharmaceutical companies. In the US in 2015, 14 companies donated $116 million to patient advocacy groups. A database identifying more than 1,200 patient groups showed that six pharmaceutical companies contributed $1 million or more in 2015 to individual groups representing patients who use their drugs, and 594 groups in the database received donations from pharmaceutical companies. Fifteen patient groups relied on pharmaceutical companies for at least 20 percent of their revenue in the same year, and some received more than half of their revenue from pharmaceutical companies. Recipients of donations from pharmaceutical companies include the American Diabetes Association, Susan G. Komen, and the Caring Ambassadors Program. [36]

Patient opinion leaders, also sometimes called patient advocates, are individuals who are well versed in a disease, either as patients themselves or as caretakers, and share their knowledge on the particular disease with others. Such POLs can have an influence on health care providers and may help persuade them to use evidence-based therapies or medications in the management of other patients. Identifying such people and persuading them is one goal of market access groups at pharmaceutical and medical device companies. [37]

Organizations

Professional groups

Solace
Solace is an American professional organization where private advocates can list their business and allow consumers to book conversations with advocates directly. [38]
Alliance of Professional Health Advocates
The Alliance of Professional Health Advocates (APHA) is an international membership organization for private, professional patient advocates, and those who are exploring the possibility of becoming private advocates. It provides business support such as legal, insurance and marketing. It also offers a public directory of member advocates called AdvoConnection. [27] Following the 2011 death of Ken Schueler — a charter member of the APHA, described as "the Father of Private Patient Advocacy" — the organization established the H. Kenneth Schueler Patient Advocacy Compass Award. The award recognizes excellence in private practice including the use of best practices, community outreach, support of the profession and professional ethics. [39]
Dialysis Patient Citizens
Dialysis Patient Citizens is an American patient-led, non-profit organization dedicated to improving dialysis citizens' quality of life by advocating for favorable public policy. One of DPC's goals is to provide dialysis patients with the education, access and confidence to be their own advocates. Through their grassroots advocacy campaigns, Patient Ambassador program; Washington, D.C. patient fly-ins; conference calls and briefings, DPC works to train effective advocates for dialysis-related issues. [40] Membership is free. [41]
National Association of Healthcare Advocacy Consultants
National Association of Healthcare Advocacy Consultants (NAHAC) is an American nonprofit organization located in Berkeley, California. Joanna Smith founded NAHAC on July 15, 2009, as a broad-based, grassroots organization for health care and patient advocacy. To that end, it is a multi-stakeholder organization, with membership open to the general public. [26]
National Patient Advocate Foundation
The National Patient Advocate Foundation is a non-profit organization in the United States dedicated to "...improving access to, and reimbursement for, high-quality healthcare through regulatory and legislative reform at the state and federal levels." [42] The National Patient Advocate Foundation was founded simultaneously with the non-profit Patient Advocate Foundation, "...which provides professional case management services to Americans with chronic, life-threatening and debilitating illnesses." [43]
Patient Advocates Australia
Patient Advocates Australia, founded by Dorothy Kamaker, is a support option for consumers of aged, health and disability care in Australia. For the elderly, an emerging need has arisen for patient advocacy in residential aged facilities. The Aged Care Royal Commission Report published in 2021 has made recommendations regarding a need for vigilant advocacy for residents of nursing homes to protect them against rampant abuse and neglect, with one submission calling for the routine provision of independent patient advocates. [44] For the disabled, funding for support to overcome healthcare barriers is available through the National Disability Insurance Scheme. [45]
Greater National Advocates (GNA) [46]
Greater National Advocates is a non-profit organization with the goal of raising Americans' awareness of the lifesaving benefits of independent patient advocacy and to provide patients and loved ones with immediate online access to a trusted network of qualified practitioners. GNA uses fact-based media to spread awareness and steer patients and their loved ones to GNANOW.org where they can learn more and find the professional support they need. [46]

Center for Patient Partnerships

Founded in 2000, [47] the interprofessional Center for Patient Partnerships (CPP) at University of Wisconsin–Madison offers a health advocacy certificate with a focus on either patient advocacy or system-level health policy advocacy. [48] The chapter "Educating for Health Advocacy in Settings of Higher Education" in Patient Advocacy for Health Care Quality: Strategies for Achieving Patient-Centered Care describes CPP's pedagogy and curriculum. [49]

Government agencies

United States

In the United States, state governmental units have established ombudsmen to investigate and respond to patient complaints and to provide other consumer services.

New York
In New York, the Office of Patient Advocacy within the New York State Office of Alcoholism and Substance Abuse Services (OASAS) is responsible for protecting the rights of patients in OASAS-certified programs. The office answers questions from patients and their families; provides guidance for health care professionals on topics related to patient rights, state regulations, and treatment standards, and intervenes to resolve problems that cannot be handled within treatment programs themselves. [50]
California
In California, the Office of the Patient Advocate (OPA), an independent state office established in July 2000 in conjunction with the Department of Managed Health Care, is responsible for the creation and distribution of educational materials for consumers, public outreach, evaluation and ranking of health care service plans, collaboration with patient assistance programs, and policy development for government health regulation. [51]

Such state government offices may also be responsible for intervening in disputes within the legal and insurance systems and in disciplinary actions against health care professionals. Some hospitals, health insurance companies, and other health care organizations also employ people specifically to assume the role of patient advocate. Within hospitals, the person may have the title of ombudsman or patient representative.[ citation needed ]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Health care</span> Prevention of disease and promotion of well-being

Health care, or healthcare, is the improvement of health via the prevention, diagnosis, treatment, amelioration or cure of disease, illness, injury, and other physical and mental impairments in people. Health care is delivered by health professionals and allied health fields. Medicine, dentistry, pharmacy, midwifery, nursing, optometry, audiology, psychology, occupational therapy, physical therapy, athletic training, and other health professions all constitute health care. The term includes work done in providing primary care, secondary care, and tertiary care, as well as in public health.

Palliative care is an interdisciplinary medical caregiving approach aimed at optimizing quality of life and mitigating suffering among people with serious, complex, and often terminal illnesses. Within the published literature, many definitions of palliative care exist. The World Health Organization (WHO) describes palliative care as "an approach that improves the quality of life of patients and their families facing the problems associated with life-threatening illness, through the prevention and relief of suffering by means of early identification and impeccable assessment and treatment of pain, illnesses including other problems whether physical, psychosocial, and spiritual". In the past, palliative care was a disease specific approach, but today the WHO takes a broader patient-centered approach that suggests that the principles of palliative care should be applied as early as possible to any chronic and ultimately fatal illness. This shift was important because if a disease-oriented approach is followed, the needs and preferences of the patient are not fully met and aspects of care, such as pain, quality of life, and social support, as well as spiritual and emotional needs, fail to be addressed. Rather, a patient-centered model prioritizes relief of suffering and tailors care to increase the quality of life for terminally ill patients.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Healthcare industry</span> Economic sector focused on health

The healthcare industry is an aggregation and integration of sectors within the economic system that provides goods and services to treat patients with curative, preventive, rehabilitative, and palliative care. It encompasses the creation and commercialization of products and services conducive to the preservation and restoration of well-being. The contemporary healthcare sector comprises three fundamental facets, namely services, products, and finance. It can be further subdivided into numerous sectors and categories and relies on interdisciplinary teams of highly skilled professionals and paraprofessionals to address the healthcare requirements of both individuals and communities.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Healthcare in Canada</span>

Healthcare in Canada is delivered through the provincial and territorial systems of publicly funded health care, informally called Medicare. It is guided by the provisions of the Canada Health Act of 1984, and is universal. The 2002 Royal Commission, known as the Romanow Report, revealed that Canadians consider universal access to publicly funded health services as a "fundamental value that ensures national health care insurance for everyone wherever they live in the country."

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Telenursing</span>

Telenursing refers to the use of information technology in the provision of nursing services whenever physical distance exists between patient and nurse, or between any number of nurses. As a field, it is part of telemedicine, and has many points of contacts with other medical and non-medical applications, such as telediagnosis, teleconsultation, and telemonitoring. The field, however, is still being developed as the information on telenursing isn't comprehensive enough.

Psychiatric nursing or mental health nursing is the appointed position of a nurse that specialises in mental health, and cares for people of all ages experiencing mental illnesses or distress. These include: neurodevelopmental disorders, schizophrenia, schizoaffective disorder, mood disorders, addiction, anxiety disorders, personality disorders, eating disorders, suicidal thoughts, psychosis, paranoia, and self-harm.

A public hospital, or government hospital, is a hospital which is government owned and is fully funded by the government and operates solely off the money that is collected from taxpayers to fund healthcare initiatives. In almost all the developed countries but the United States of America, and in most of the developing countries, this type of hospital provides medical care free of charge to patients, covering expenses and wages by government reimbursement.

A health professional, healthcare professional, or healthcare worker is a provider of health care treatment and advice based on formal training and experience. The field includes those who work as a nurse, physician, physician assistant, registered dietitian, veterinarian, veterinary technician, optometrist, pharmacist, pharmacy technician, medical assistant, physical therapist, occupational therapist, dentist, midwife, psychologist, audiologist, or healthcare scientist, or who perform services in allied health professions. Experts in public health and community health are also health professionals.

Case management is a managed care technique within the health care coverage system of the United States. It involves an integrated system that manages the delivery of comprehensive healthcare services for enrolled patients. Case managers are employed in almost every aspect of health care and these employ different approaches in the control of clinical actions.

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Healthcare in Pakistan</span> Overview of the health care system in Pakistan

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Health policy</span> Policy area that deals with the health system of a country or other organization

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Philosophy of healthcare</span>

The philosophy of healthcare is the study of the ethics, processes, and people which constitute the maintenance of health for human beings. For the most part, however, the philosophy of healthcare is best approached as an indelible component of human social structures. That is, the societal institution of healthcare can be seen as a necessary phenomenon of human civilization whereby an individual continually seeks to improve, mend, and alter the overall nature and quality of their life. This perennial concern is especially prominent in modern political liberalism, wherein health has been understood as the foundational good necessary for public life.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Healthcare in Israel</span> Overview of the health care system in Israel

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nursing</span> Health care profession

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Healthcare in Senegal</span> Overview of the health care system in Senegal

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In South Africa, private and public health systems exist in parallel. The public system serves the vast majority of the population. Authority and service delivery are divided between the national Department of Health, provincial health departments, and municipal health departments.

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Holistic nursing</span> Medical care practice

Holistic nursing is a way of treating and taking care of the patient as a whole body, which involves physical, social, environmental, psychological, cultural and religious factors. There are many theories that support the importance of nurses approaching the patient holistically and education on this is there to support the goal of holistic nursing. The important skill to be used in holistic nursing would be communicating skills with patients and other practitioners. This emphasizes that patients being treated would be treated not only in their body but also their mind and spirit.. Holistic nursing is a nursing speciality concerning the integration of one's mind, body, and spirit with his or her environment. This speciality has a theoretical basis in a few grand nursing theories, most notably the science of unitary human beings, as published by Martha E. Rogers in An Introduction to the Theoretical Basis of Nursing, and the mid-range theory Empowered Holistic Nursing Education, as published by Dr. Katie Love. Holistic nursing has gained recognition by the American Nurses Association (ANA) as a nursing specialty with a defined scope of practice and standards. Holistic nursing focuses on the mind, body, and spirit working together as a whole and how spiritual awareness in nursing can help heal illness. Holistic medicine focuses on maintaining optimum well-being and preventing rather than just treating disease.

Genetics nursing is a nursing specialty that focuses on providing genetic healthcare to patients.

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  28. ↑ Morgan, Geoff (2017). Independent advocacy and spiritual care: insights from service users, advocates, health care professionals and chaplains. London: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN   978-1-137-53125-4. OCLC   974649659.
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  30. ↑ Kamaker, Dorothy (26 September 2015). "Patient advocacy services ensure optimum health outcomes". Business. Sydney Morning Herald. Fairfax Media.
  31. ↑ Disabilities and health inequalities in Australia: Research Summary (PDF). VicHealth. August 2012. ISBN   978-1-921822-61-2.
  32. ↑ "Greater National Advocates | Get Help Now". Greater National Advocates. Retrieved 2022-02-23.
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  34. ↑ Dresser, Rebecca (2001). When science offers salvation : patient advocacy and research ethics. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN   978-0-19-974895-2. OCLC   607554932.
  35. ↑ Rose, Susannah L.; Highland, Janelle; Karafa, Matthew T.; Joffe, Steven (2017-03-01). "Patient Advocacy Organizations, Industry Funding, and Conflicts of Interest". JAMA Internal Medicine. 177 (3): 344–350. doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2016.8443. ISSN   2168-6106. PMID   28114624. S2CID   20183582.
  36. ↑ Kopp, Emily; Lupkin, Sydney; Lucas, Elizabeth (6 April 2018). "Patient Advocacy Groups Take in Millions from Drugmakers. Is There a Payback?". KFF Health News .
  37. ↑ Flodgren, Gerd; O'Brien, Mary Ann; Parmelli, Elena; Grimshaw, Jeremy M. (24 June 2019). "Local opinion leaders: effects on professional practice and healthcare outcomes". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2019 (6): CD000125. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD000125.pub5. ISSN   1469-493X. PMC   6589938 . PMID   31232458.
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  39. ↑ "The H. Kenneth Schueler Patient Advocacy Compass Award". The Alliance of Professional Health Advocates. Retrieved 19 February 2015.
  40. ↑ "About Dialysis Patient Citizens". Dialysis Patient Citizens. Retrieved 9 December 2020.
  41. ↑ "Join DPC". Dialysis Patient Citizens. Retrieved 9 December 2020.
  42. ↑ "Mission Statement". National Patient Advocate Foundation. Archived from the original on 16 February 2015. Retrieved 16 February 2015.
  43. ↑ "Our History & Mission". Patient Advocate Foundation. Retrieved 16 February 2015.
  44. ↑ Rowe, Trevor. Submission to the Royal Commission into Aged Care (Australia) (PDF).
  45. ↑ "Disability Advocacy". NDIS Quality and Safeguards Commission . Archived from the original on 2019-02-28. Retrieved 2023-08-04.
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  47. ↑ "Our History". Center for Patient Partnerships. Retrieved 10 October 2017.
  48. ↑ "Adult and Returning Students: Health Advocacy Certificate Program". Center for Patient Partnerships. Retrieved 10 October 2017.
  49. ↑ Hurst, Marsha; Gaines, Martha E.; Grob, Rachel N.; Weil, Laura; Davis, Sarah (2008). "Educating for Health Advocacy in Settings of Higher Learning". In Earp, Jo Anne L.; French, Elizabeth A.; Gilkey, Melissa B. (eds.). Patient Advocacy for Health Care Quality: Strategies for Achieving Patient-Centered Care. Jones and Bartlett. pp. 481–506. ISBN   978-0-7637-4961-3. OCLC   79256746.
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  51. ↑ "Home". Office of the Patient Advocate. Retrieved 2021-08-16.
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