Social privilege

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Social privilege is an advantage or entitlement that benefits individuals belonging to certain groups, often to the detriment of others. Privileged groups can be advantaged based on social class, wealth, education, caste, age, height, skin color, physical fitness, nationality, geographic location, cultural differences, ethnic or racial category, gender, gender identity, neurodiversity, physical disability, sexual orientation, religion, and other differentiating factors. [1] [2] Individuals can be privileged in one area, such as education, and not privileged in another area, such as health. The amount of privilege any individual has may change over time, such as when a person becomes disabled, or when a child becomes a young adult.

Contents

The concept of privilege is generally considered to be a theoretical concept used in a variety of subjects and often linked to social inequality. [2] Privilege is also linked to social and cultural forms of power. [2] It began as an academic concept, but has since been invoked more widely, outside of academia. [3] This subject is based on the interactions of different forms of privilege within certain situations. [4] It can be understood as the inverse of social inequality, in that it focuses on how power structures in society aid societally privileged people, as opposed to how those structures oppress others. [4]

History

Writings of W. E. B. Du Bois

W. E. B. Du Bois, the author of The Souls of Black Folk (1903) Du Bois, W. E. B..jpg
W. E. B. Du Bois, the author of The Souls of Black Folk (1903)

Arguably[ further explanation needed ], the history of privilege as a concept dates back to American sociologist and historian W. E. B. Du Bois's 1903 book The Souls of Black Folk . Here, he wrote that although African Americans were observant of white Americans and conscious of racial discrimination, white Americans did not think much about African-Americans, nor about the effects of racial discrimination. [5] [6] [7] In 1935, Du Bois wrote about what he called the "wages of whiteness" held by white Americans. He wrote that these included courtesy and deference, unimpeded admittance to all public functions, lenient treatment in court, and access to the best schools. [8]

Codification of the concept

Early concepts that would lead to the term White Privilege were developed by the Weather Underground in the 1960s. [9] [10] In 1988, American feminist and anti-racism activist Peggy McIntosh published "White Privilege and Male Privilege: A Personal Account of Coming to See Correspondences through Work in Women's Studies". Here, McIntosh documented forty-six privileges which she, as a white person, experienced in the United States. As an example, "I can be sure that if I need legal or medical help, my race will not work against me", and "I do not have to educate my children to be aware of systemic racism for their own daily physical protection". McIntosh described white privilege as an "invisible package of unearned assets" which white people do not want to acknowledge, and which leads to them being confident, comfortable, and oblivious about racial issues, while non-white people become unconfident, uncomfortable, and alienated. [11] McIntosh's essay has been credited for stimulating academic interest in privilege, which has been extensively studied in the decades since. [12]

Overview

Historically, academic study of social inequality focused mainly on the ways in which minority groups were discriminated against, and ignored the privileges accorded to dominant social groups. That changed in the late 1980s, when researchers began studying the concept of privilege. [12]

Privilege, as understood and described by researchers, is a function of multiple variables of varying importance, such as race, age, gender, sexual orientation, gender identity, neurology, citizenship, religion, physical ability, health, level of education, and others. Race and gender tend to have the highest impacts given that one is born with these characteristics and they are immediately visible. However, religion, sexuality and physical ability are also highly relevant. [4] Some such as social class are relatively stable and others, such as age, wealth, religion and attractiveness, will or may change over time. [13] Some attributes of privilege are at least partly determined by the individual, such as level of education, whereas others such as race or class background are entirely involuntary.

American sociologist Michael S. Kimmel uses the metaphor of a wind to explain the concept. He explains that when you walk into the wind you have to struggle for each step that you take. When you walk with the wind, you do not feel the wind at all but you still move faster than you would otherwise. The wind is social privilege and if it flows with you, it simply propels you forward with little effort of your own. [4]

In the context of the theory, privileged people are considered to be "the norm", and, as such, gain invisibility and ease in society, with others being cast as inferior variants. [14] Privileged people see themselves reflected throughout society both in mass media and face-to-face in their encounters with teachers, workplace managers and other authorities, which researchers argue leads to a sense of entitlement and the assumption that the privileged person will succeed in life, as well as protecting the privileged person from worry that they may face discrimination from people in positions of authority. [15]

Awareness of privilege

Some academics, such as Peggy McIntosh, highlight a pattern where those who benefit from a type of privilege are unwilling to acknowledge it. [16] [17] [18] The argument may follow that such a denial constitutes a further injustice against those who do not benefit from the same form of privilege. Derald Wing Sue has referred to such denial as a form of "microaggression" or microinvalidation that negates the experiences of people who do not have privilege and minimizes the impediments they face. [19]

McIntosh wrote that most people are reluctant to acknowledge their privilege, and instead look for ways to justify or minimize the effects of privilege stating that their privilege was fully earned. They justify this by acknowledging the acts of individuals of unearned dominance, but deny that privilege is institutionalized as well as embedded throughout our society. She wrote that those who believe privilege is systemic may nonetheless deny having personally benefited from it, and may oppose efforts to dismantle it. [11] According to researchers[ who? ], privileged individuals resist acknowledging their privileges because doing so would require them to acknowledge that whatever success they have achieved did not result solely through their own efforts. Instead it was partly due to a system that has developed to support them. [19] The concept of privilege calls into question the idea that society is a meritocracy, which researchers[ who? ] have argued is particularly unsettling for Americans for whom belief that they live in a meritocracy is a deeply held cultural value, and one that researchers commonly characterize as a myth. [14] [20] [21] [22]

In The Gendered Society, Michael Kimmel wrote that when people at all levels of privilege do not feel personally powerful, arguments that they have benefited from unearned advantages seem unpersuasive. [21] [ further explanation needed ]

Examples

Educational racism

Racism is the belief that groups of humans possess different behavioral traits corresponding to physical appearance and can be divided based on the superiority of one race over another. This can result in particular ethnic and cultural groups having privileged access to a multitude of resources and opportunities, including education and work positions.

Educational racism has been entrenched in American society since the creation of the United States of America. A system of laws in the 18th and 19th century known as the Black Codes, criminalized the access to education for black people. Until the introduction of the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution and the Civil Rights Act of 1866, seeking out an education was punishable by the law for them. This thus served to keep African Americans illiterate and only value them as a workforce. However, even after these institutional and legal changes, African Americans were still targeted by educational racism in the form of school segregation in the United States. In the 20th century the fight against educational racism reached its climax with the landmark Supreme Court case Brown v. Board of Education. [23]

Educational racism also took other forms throughout history such as the creation of Canadian Indian residential school system in 1831, which forcefully integrated indigenous children into schools aimed at erasing their ethnic, linguistic and cultural specificities in order to assimilate them into a white settler society. Until the last residential school closed in 1996, Canada had an educational system which specifically harmed and targeted indigenous children. An estimated 6,000 children died under that system. [24]

Nowadays the opportunity gap pinpoints how educational racism is present in societies. The term refers to "the ways in which race, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, English proficiency, community wealth, familial situations, or other factors contribute to or perpetuate lower educational aspirations, achievement, and attainment for certain groups of students." [25] In other words, it is "the disparity in access to quality schools and the resources needed for all children to be academically successful." [26] Concretely this can be seen in the United States by considering how, according to the Schott Foundation's Opportunity to Learn Index, "students from historically disadvantaged families have just a 51 percent Opportunity to Learn when compared to White, non-Latino students." [26]

According to McKinley et al.

Students of color are pushed toward academic failure and continued social disenfranchisement. Racist policies and beliefs, in part, explain why children and young adults from racially marginalized groups fail to achieve academically at the same rate as their White peers. [27]

Heterosexual privilege

Heterosexual privilege can be defined as "the rights and unearned advantages bestowed on heterosexuals in society". [28] There are both institutional and cultural forces encouraging heterosexuality in society. [28] Sexual orientation is a repeated romantic, sexual or emotional attraction to one or multiple genders. There are a variety of categories including heterosexual, gay, lesbian, and bisexual. [29] Heterosexual is considered the normative form of sexual orientation. [1]

Heterosexual privilege is based in the existence of homophobia in society, particularly at the individual level. Between 2014 and 2018, 849 sexual orientation related hate crimes were committed in Canada. [30] Despite the fact that Canada legalized same-sex marriage in 2005 and has enshrined the protection of the human rights of all people of all sexual orientations, there is still societal bias against those who do not conform to heterosexuality. [31] [32]

Beyond this, institutions such as marriage stop homosexual partners from accessing each other's health insurance, tax benefits or adopting a child together. [28] Same sex marriage is legal in only 27 countries, mostly in the northern hemisphere. [33] This results in an inability for non-heterosexual couples to benefit from the institutional structures that are based on heterosexuality, resulting in privilege for those who are heterosexual.

Intersectionality

Privilege theory argues that each individual is embedded in a matrix of categories and contexts, and will be in some ways privileged and other ways disadvantaged, with privileged attributes lessening disadvantage and membership in a disadvantaged group lessening the benefits of privilege. [17] This can be further supported by the idea of intersectionality, which was coined by Kimberle Crenshaw in 1989. [34] When applying intersectionality to the concept of social privilege, it can be understood as the way one form of privilege can be mitigated by other areas in which a person lacks privilege, for example, a black man who has male privilege but no white privilege. [35] It is also argued that members of privileged social identity groups often do not recognize their advantages. [36]

Intersections of forms of identity can either enhance privilege or decrease its effects. [37] Psychological analysis has found that people tend to frame their lives on different elements of their identity and therefore frame their lives through the privilege they do or do not have. [38] However, this analysis also found that this framing was stronger amongst certain nationalities, suggesting that identity and privilege may be more central in certain countries. [38] Often people construct themselves in relation to the majority, so ties to identity and therefore degrees of privilege can be stronger for more marginalized groups.

Forms of privilege one might have can actually be decreased by the presence of other factors. For example, the feminization of a gay man may reduce his male privilege in addition to already lacking heterosexual privilege. [35] When acknowledging privilege, multifaceted situations must be understood individually. Privilege is a nuanced notion and an intersectional understanding helps bridge gaps in the original analysis.

Criticism

The concept of privilege has been criticized for ignoring relative differences among groups. For example, Lawrence Blum argued that in American culture there are status differences among Chinese, Japanese, Indians, Koreans, and Cambodians, and among African Americans, black immigrants from the Caribbean, and black immigrants from Africa. [39]

Blum agreed that privilege exists and is systemic yet nonetheless criticized the label itself, saying that the word "privilege" implies luxuries rather than rights, and arguing that some benefits of privilege such as unimpeded access to education and housing would be better understood as rights; Blum suggested that privilege theory should distinguish between "spared injustice" and "unjust enrichment" as some effects of being privileged are the former and others the latter. Blum also argued that privilege can end up homogenising both privileged and non-privileged groups when in fact it needs to take account the role of interacting effects and an individual's multiple group identities. [39] "White privilege", Michael Monahan argued, would be more accurately described as the advantages gained by whites through historical disenfranchisement of non-whites rather than something that gives whites privilege above and beyond normal human status. [40]

Psychologist Erin Cooley reported in a study published in 2019 that reading about white privilege decreased social liberals' sympathy for poor whites and increased their will to punish/blame but did not increase their sympathy for poor blacks. [41]

See also

Further reading

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sexuality and gender identity-based cultures</span> Variety of communities and subcultures

Sexuality and gender identity-based cultures are subcultures and communities composed of people who have shared experiences, backgrounds, or interests due to common sexual or gender identities. Among the first to argue that members of sexual minorities can also constitute cultural minorities were Adolf Brand, Magnus Hirschfeld, and Leontine Sagan in Germany. These pioneers were later followed by the Mattachine Society and the Daughters of Bilitis in the United States.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Prejudice</span> Attitudes based on preconceived categories

Prejudice can be an affective feeling towards a person based on their perceived group membership. The word is often used to refer to a preconceived evaluation or classification of another person based on that person's perceived personal characteristics, such as political affiliation, sex, gender, gender identity, beliefs, values, social class, age, disability, religion, sexuality, race, ethnicity, language, nationality, culture, complexion, beauty, height, body weight, occupation, wealth, education, criminality, sport-team affiliation, music tastes or other perceived characteristics.

Class discrimination, also known as classism, is prejudice or discrimination on the basis of social class. It includes individual attitudes, behaviors, systems of policies and practices that are set up to benefit the upper class at the expense of the lower class.

Queer theory is a field of post-structuralist critical theory that emerged in the early 1990s out of queer studies and women's studies.

Triple oppression, also called double jeopardy, Jane Crow, or triple exploitation, is a theory developed by black socialists in the United States, such as Claudia Jones. The theory states that a connection exists between various types of oppression, specifically classism, racism, and sexism. It hypothesizes that all three types of oppression need to be overcome at once.

Heterosexism is a system of attitudes, bias, and discrimination in favor of heterosexuality and heterosexual relationships. According to Elizabeth Cramer, it can include the belief that all people are or should be heterosexual and that heterosexual relationships are the only norm and therefore superior.

Sexual identity refers to one's self-perception in terms of romantic or sexual attraction towards others, though not mutually exclusive, and can be different to romantic identity. Sexual identity may also refer to sexual orientation identity, which is when people identify or dis-identify with a sexual orientation or choose not to identify with a sexual orientation. Sexual identity and sexual behavior are closely related to sexual orientation, but they are distinguished, with identity referring to an individual's conception of themselves, behavior referring to actual sexual acts performed by the individual, and sexual orientation referring to romantic or sexual attractions toward persons of the opposite sex or gender, the same sex or gender, to both sexes or more than one gender, or to no one.

The term "minority group" has different usages, depending on the context. According to its common usage, the term minority group can simply be understood in terms of demographic sizes within a population: i.e. a group in society with the least number of individuals, or less than half, is a "minority". Usually a minority group is disempowered relative to the majority, and that characteristic lends itself to different applications of the term minority.

Oppression is malicious or unjust treatment of, or exercise of power over, a group of individuals, often in the form of governmental authority or cultural opprobrium. It is related to regimentation, class, society, and punishment. Oppression may be overt or covert, depending on how it is practiced. Oppression refers to discrimination when the injustice does not target and may not directly afflict everyone in society, but instead targets or disproportionately impacts specific groups of people.

Whiteness studies is the study of the structures that produce white privilege, the examination of what whiteness is when analyzed as a race, a culture, and a source of systemic racism, and the exploration of other social phenomena generated by the societal compositions, perceptions and group behaviors of white people. It is an interdisciplinary arena of inquiry that has developed beginning in the United States from white trash studies and critical race studies, particularly since the late 20th century. It is focused on what proponents describe as the cultural, historical and sociological aspects of people identified as white, and the social construction of "whiteness" as an ideology tied to social status.

White privilege, or white skin privilege, is the societal privilege that benefits white people over non-white people in some societies, particularly if they are otherwise under the same social, political, or economic circumstances. With roots in European colonialism and imperialism, and the Atlantic slave trade, white privilege has developed in circumstances that have broadly sought to protect white racial privileges, various national citizenships, and other rights or special benefits.

Male privilege is the system of advantages or rights that are available to men on the basis of their sex. A man's access to these benefits may vary depending on how closely they match their society's ideal masculine norm.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Intersectionality</span> Theory of discrimination

Intersectionality is a sociological analytical framework for understanding how groups' and individuals' social and political identities result in unique combinations of discrimination and privilege. Examples of these factors include gender, caste, sex, race, ethnicity, class, sexuality, religion, disability, height, age, weight and physical appearance. These intersecting and overlapping social identities may be both empowering and oppressing. However, little good-quality quantitative research has been done to support or undermine the practical uses of intersectionality.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">LGBT stereotypes</span> Stereotypes around LGBTQ people and communities

LGBT stereotypes are stereotypes about lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBT) people are based on their sexual orientations, gender identities, or gender expressions. Stereotypical perceptions may be acquired through interactions with parents, teachers, peers and mass media, or, more generally, through a lack of firsthand familiarity, resulting in an increased reliance on generalizations.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Peggy McIntosh</span> American academic and anti-racism activist

Peggy McIntosh is an American feminist, anti-racism activist, scholar, speaker, and senior research scientist of the Wellesley Centers for Women. She is the founder of the National SEED Project on Inclusive Curriculum. She and Emily Style co-directed SEED for its first twenty-five years. She has written on curricular revision, feelings of fraudulence, hierarchies in education and society, and professional development of teachers.

Sexual capital or erotic capital is the social power an individual or group accrues as a result of their sexual attractiveness and social charm. It enables social mobility independent of class origin because sexual capital is convertible, and may be useful in acquiring other forms of capital, including social capital and economic capital.

In feminist theory, kyriarchy is a social system or set of connecting social systems built around domination, oppression, and submission. The word was coined by Elisabeth Schüssler Fiorenza in 1992 to describe her theory of interconnected, interacting, and self-extending systems of domination and submission, in which a single individual might be oppressed in some relationships and privileged in others. It is an intersectional extension of the idea of patriarchy beyond gender. Kyriarchy encompasses sexism, racism, ableism, ageism, antisemitism, Islamophobia, anti-Catholicism, homophobia, transphobia, fatphobia, classism, xenophobia, economic injustice, the prison-industrial complex, colonialism, militarism, ethnocentrism, speciesism, linguicism and other forms of dominating hierarchies in which the subordination of one person or group to another is internalized and institutionalized.

In feminist theory, heteropatriarchy or cisheteropatriarchy, is a socio-political system where (primarily) cisgender and heterosexual males have authority over other cisgender males, females, and people with other sexual orientations and gender identities. It is a term that emphasizes that discrimination against women and LGBT people is derived from the same sexist social principle.

Multiracial feminist theory is promoted by women of color (WOC), including Black, Latina, Asian, Native American, and anti-racist white women. In 1996, Maxine Baca Zinn and Bonnie Thornton Dill wrote “Theorizing Difference from Multiracial Feminism," a piece emphasizing intersectionality and the application of intersectional analysis within feminist discourse.

Privilege Hazard is a concept introduced by Catherine D'Ignazio and Lauren Klein in their book Data Feminism,referring to the phenomenon where individuals in privileged positions remain unaware of their inherent advantages. This lack of awareness perpetuates societal inequalities and obstructs efforts to advocate for marginalized groups. Privilege hazard is cited by other authors to acknowledge their positionality and risk of misinterpretating others' experiences. Authors such as Felicia Pratto, Andrew Stewart, Peggy McIntosh and Taylor Phillips have contributed to this discourse by examining various forms of privilege hazards, including group dominance, white, male and class privilege. This exploration sheds light on how privilege manifests in different societal spheres and its implications for marginalized communities.

References

  1. 1 2 Black, Linda L.; Stone, David (2005). "Expanding the Definition of Privilege: The Concept of Social Privilege". Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development. 33 (4): 243–255. doi:10.1002/j.2161-1912.2005.tb00020.x.
  2. 1 2 3 Twine, France Winddance (2013). Geographies of Privilege. Routledge. pp. 8–10. ISBN   978-0415519618.
  3. ↑ Freeman, Hadley (5 June 2013). "Check your privilege! Whatever that means". The Guardian . Retrieved 2 November 2018.
  4. 1 2 3 4 S. Kimmel, Michael (17 April 2018). Kimmel, Michael S; Ferber, Abby L (eds.). privilege: A Reader (4 ed.). Fourth Edition. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 2016. Revised edition of Privilege, 2014.: Routledge. pp. 1–11. doi:10.4324/9780429494802. ISBN   9780429494802.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link)
  5. ↑ Sullivan, Shannon (2006). Revealing Whiteness: The Unconscious Habits of Racial Privilege. Indiana University Press. pp. 121–123. ISBN   978-0253218483.
  6. ↑ Reiland, Rabaka (2007). W.E.B. Du Bois and the Problems of the Twenty-First Century: An Essay on Africana Critical Theory. Lexington Books. p. 3. ISBN   978-0739116821.
  7. ↑ Appelrouth, Scott (2007). Classical and Contemporary Sociological Theory: Text and Readings . 304-305: SAGE Publications. ISBN   978-0761927938.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link)
  8. ↑ Kincheloe, Joe L. (2008). Critical Pedagogy Primer. Peter Lang International Academic Publishers. pp. 60–62. ISBN   978-1433101823.
  9. ↑ Christensen, Mark (2010). Acid Christ: Ken Kesey, LSD, and the Politics of Ecstasy. IPG. p. 264.
  10. ↑ Sine, Peter (1995). The Sixties. Wayne State University Press. p. 222.
  11. 1 2 Kimmel, Michael S. (2009). Privilege: A Reader. Westview Press. pp. 1, 5, 13–26. ISBN   978-0813344263.
  12. 1 2 O'Brien, Jodi A. (2008). Encyclopedia of Gender and Society. SAGE Publications. p. 418. ISBN   978-1412909167.
  13. ↑ Sweet, Holly Barlow (2012). Gender in the Therapy Hour: Voices of Female Clinicians Working with Men (The Routledge Series on Counseling and Psychotherapy with Boys and Men). Routledge. p. 71. ISBN   978-0415885515.
  14. 1 2 Case, Kim (2013). Deconstructing Privilege: Teaching and Learning as Allies in the Classroom. Routledge. pp. 63–64. ISBN   978-0415641463.
  15. ↑ Sorrells, Kathryn (2012). Intercultural Communication: Globalization and Social Justice. SAGE Publications. pp.  63. ISBN   978-1412927444.
  16. ↑ McIntosh, Peggy (4 July 2019), "White Privilege: Unpacking the Invisible Knapsack (1989) 1", On Privilege, Fraudulence, and Teaching as Learning, Routledge, pp. 29–34, doi:10.4324/9781351133791-4, ISBN   9781351133791, S2CID   199169416
  17. 1 2 Garnets, Linda (2002). Psychological Perspectives on Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Experiences. Columbia University Press. p. 391. ISBN   978-0231124133.
  18. ↑ Carter, Robert T. (2004). Handbook of Racial-Cultural Psychology and Counseling, Training and Practice. Wiley. p. 432. ISBN   978-0471386292.
  19. 1 2 Sue, Derald Wing (2010). Microaggressions in Everyday Life: Race, Gender, and Sexual Orientation. Wiley. pp. 37–39. ISBN   978-0470491409.
  20. ↑ Khan, Shamus Rahman (2012). Privilege: The Making of an Adolescent Elite at St. Paul's School (Princeton Studies in Cultural Sociology). Princeton University Press. pp. 107–108. ISBN   978-0691156231.
  21. 1 2 Halley, Jean (2011). Seeing White: An Introduction to White Privilege and Race. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. pp. 67, 191. ISBN   978-1442203075.
  22. ↑ Jackson, Yolanda Kaye (2006). Encyclopedia of Multicultural Psychology. SAGE Publications. p. 471. ISBN   9781452265568.
  23. ↑ Bond, Helen (2013), "Racism in Education", Sociology of Education: An A-to-Z Guide, SAGE Publications, Inc., pp. 640–643, doi:10.4135/9781452276151, ISBN   9781452205052 , retrieved 21 August 2019
  24. ↑ "Residential Schools in Canada | The Canadian Encyclopedia". www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca. Retrieved 21 August 2019.
  25. ↑ Partnership, Great Schools (15 May 2013). "Opportunity Gap Definition". The Glossary of Education Reform. Retrieved 20 August 2019.
  26. 1 2 "Opportunity Gap - Talking Points | Schott Foundation for Public Education". schottfoundation.org. Retrieved 20 August 2019.
  27. ↑ Bryan McKinley Jones Brayboy, Angelina E. Castagno and Emma Maughan. Review of Research in Education Vol. 31, Difference, Diversity, and Distinctiveness in Education and Learning (2007), pp. 159-194
  28. 1 2 3 Williford, Beth (2009), "Heterosexual Privilege", Encyclopedia of Gender and Society, SAGE Publications, Inc., doi:10.4135/9781412964517.n208, ISBN   9781412909167 , retrieved 20 August 2019
  29. ↑ "Answers to Your Questions For a Better Understanding of Sexual Orientation and Homosexuality". American Psychological Association. Retrieved 20 August 2019.
  30. ↑ "Police-reported hate crime, by type of motivation, Canada (selected police services)". Statistics Canada. 8 December 2014. Retrieved 20 August 2019.
  31. ↑ Branch, Legislative Services (20 July 2005). "Civil Marriage Act". Justice Laws Act. Retrieved 20 August 2019.
  32. ↑ Branch, Legislative Services (1985). "Canadian Human Rights Act". Justice Laws Website. Retrieved 20 August 2019.
  33. ↑ "Gay Marriage Around the World". Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project. Retrieved 19 May 2019.
  34. ↑ Crenshaw, Kimberle (1989). "Demarginalizing the Intersection of Race and Sex: A Black Feminist Critique of Antidiscrimination Doctrine, Feminist Theory and Antiracist Politics". University of Chicago Legal Forum. 1989 (1): 139–167.
  35. 1 2 Coston, Bethany M.; Kimmel, Michael (19 March 2012). "Seeing Privilege Where It Isn't: Marginalized Masculinities and the Intersectionality of Privilege". Journal of Social Issues. 68 (1): 97–111. doi:10.1111/j.1540-4560.2011.01738.x.
  36. ↑ Allen, Brenda. Difference Matters (2nd ed.). p. 15.
  37. ↑ Gutiérrez y Muhs, Gabriella. (2012). Presumed Incompetent : the Intersections of Race and Class for Women in Academia. Niemann, Yolanda Flores., González, Carmen G., Harris, Angela P. Utah: Utah State University Press. pp. 29–39. ISBN   9780874218701. OCLC   843635973.
  38. 1 2 Voltmer, Amy. Understanding Intersectionality through Subjective Experiences of Privilege and Oppression. ISBN   9780438047501. OCLC   1089398027.
  39. 1 2 Blum, Lawrence (2008). "'White privilege': A mild critique" (PDF). Theory and Research in Education. 6 (3): 309–321. doi:10.1177/1477878508095586. S2CID   144471761 . Retrieved 23 October 2014.
  40. ↑ Monahan, Michael J. (2014). "The concept of privilege: a critical appraisal". South African Journal of Philosophy. 3 (1): 73–83. doi:10.1080/02580136.2014.892681. eISSN   2073-4867. ISSN   0258-0136. S2CID   145358447.
  41. ↑ Cooley, Erin; Brown-Iannuzzi, Jazmin (29 April 2019). "Complex intersections of race and class: Among social liberals, learning about White privilege reduces sympathy, increases blame, and decreases external attributions for White people struggling with poverty". Journal of Experimental Psychology: General. 148 (12): 2218–2228. doi:10.1037/xge0000605. PMID   31033321. S2CID   139104272.
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