Housing

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Industrialization brought mass migration to cities. This one-room worker home from Helsinki from 1911 represents an attempt by the city government to improve the conditions of workers e.g. with electricity and running water installed in the row house. Worker home from 1911 in Helsinki.jpg
Industrialization brought mass migration to cities. This one-room worker home from Helsinki from 1911 represents an attempt by the city government to improve the conditions of workers e.g. with electricity and running water installed in the row house.

Housing refers to the usage and possibly construction of shelter as living spaces, individually or collectively. Housing is a basic human need and a human right, playing a critical role in shaping the quality of life for individuals, families, and communities, [1] As such it is the main issue of housing organization and policy.

Contents

Overview

Housing ensures that members of society have a place to live, whether it is a home or some kind of physical structure for dwelling, lodging or shelter and it includes a range of options from apartments and houses to temporary shelters and emergency accommodations. [2] Access to safe, affordable, and stable housing is essential for a person's health, safety, and well-being. Housing can also impact a person's economic, social, and cultural opportunities, as it influences their access to education, employment, healthcare, and social networks. In many countries, housing policies and programs have been developed to address issues related to affordability, quality, and availability, and to ensure that everyone has access to decent housing. Some have one or more housing authorities, sometimes also called a housing ministry or housing department.

In general there are two types of housing, market housing and non-market housing. While market housing consists of apartments, condominiums, private housing, etc. Non-market housing consists of public, social, and cooperative housing among others. Market housing refers to housing that is bought and sold on the open market, with prices and rents determined by supply and demand. This type of housing is typically owned by private individuals or corporations, and the rental rates are determined by the landlord based on the local market conditions. Non-market housing, on the other hand, refers to housing that is provided and managed by the government or non-profit organizations, with the goal of providing affordable housing options to individuals or families with low to moderate incomes. This type of housing is typically subsidized, meaning that the rent is lower than the market rate, and tenants may be eligible for rent assistance programs. [3]

History

United States of America

In the United States, it was not until the 19th and 20th century that there was a lot more government involvement in housing. It was mainly aimed at helping those who were poor in the community. [4] Public housing provides help and assistance to those who are poor and mainly low-income earners. A study report shows that there are many individuals living in public housing. There are over 1.2 million families or households. [5] These types of housing were built mainly to provide people, mainly those who are low-income and elderly, with safe, affordable, and good housing units.

With regards to the history of housing, there are studies that prove that the involvement of the government began in 1937, and it was "under the United States Housing Act". [6] The goal was to improve many things such as all of the unsafe, unsanitary, and terrible housing conditions which connect to the issue of affordable housing. In 1940, there was development, and there was an Office of Housing expenditures. Later on, in the years, another housing act took place in 1956, and in 1960, there was recognition of rights which was considered to be a "huge turning point for public housing". [6] Many of the policies created back then tend to be still active nowadays.

From that time until now, public housing has been increasing. In the 1980s, there were many public housing individuals and tenants who lived in many different areas, particularly those areas that were segregated. Some years later, a new program was created, and it caused many people to be relocated. This is similar to what we have today, where people are repositioned. Back then, the program was called Hope VI. [7]

Moving forward to the 2000s, the problem of finding affordable housing started to increase, leading United States Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) to start taking action and helping out many homeowners, individuals, agencies, and communities in order to find affordable housing. When counting, there are over nine hundred thousand participants in this program. [8] Throughout the years after there had been an increase in housing prices then they tend to go down after a year, this was occurring in 2005, and it sure is occurring today, nowadays there are such high prices on houses. In 2008, an act did take place called the "Housing and Economic Recovery Act of 2008" and this act "strengthened and modernized the regulation of...(government-sponsored enterprises) and the Federal Home Loan Banks" [9] From 2013 to 2017, there were contributions occurring; for example, there was the LIHTC which although a source on the outside, did help out with HUD and provide many different funds which helped out with public housing, especially with their capital needs. From 2000 until 2019, inflation dropped because of all of the public housing funds. [10] Nowadays affordable housing is a huge problem for so many families, and this is up by about ten to fifteen percent since 2018 because of the increase in prices.   [11]

Macroeconomy and housing price

Previous research has shown that housing price is affected by the macroeconomy. [12] Research from 2018 indicates that a 1% increase in the Consumer Price Index leads to a $3,559,715 increase in housing prices and raises the property price per square foot by $119.3387.[ citation needed ] Money Supply (M2) has a positive relationship with housing prices. As M2 increased by one unit, housing prices rose by 0.0618 in a study conducted in Hong Kong. When there is a 1% increase in the best lending rate, housing prices drop by between $18,237.26 and $28,681.17 in the HAC[ which? ] model. Mortgage repayments lead to a rise in the discount window base rate. A 1% rise in the rate leads to a $14,314.69 drop in housing prices, and an average selling price drop of $585,335.50. As the US real interest rate increases, the interest rates in Hong Kong must follow, increasing mortgage repayments. When there is a 1% increase in the US real interest rate, the property prices decrease from $9302.845 to $4957.274, and saleable area drops by $4.955206 and $14.01284. When there is a 1% rise in overnight Hong Kong Interbank Offered Rate, the housing prices drop to about 3455.529, and the price per ft2 will drop by $187.3119. [13] [ need quotation to verify ]

Effect on health

Housing is recognized as a social determinant of health. Lack of housing or poor-quality housing can negatively affect an individual's physical and mental health. Housing attributes that negatively affect physical health include dampness, mold, inadequate heating, and overcrowding. Mental health is also affected by inadequate heating, overcrowding, dampness, and mold, as well as lack of personal space. [14] Instability in housing can negatively affect mental health. [15] Housing can affect the health of children through exposure to asthma triggers or lead, and through injuries due to structural deficiencies (e.g. lack of window guards or radiator covers). [16]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Public housing</span> Residential properties owned by a government

Public housing is a form of housing tenure in which the property is usually owned by a government authority, either central or local. Although the common goal of public housing is to provide affordable housing, the details, terminology, definitions of poverty, and other criteria for allocation vary within different contexts. Within the OECD, social housing represents an average of 7% of national housing stock (2020), ranging from ~34% in the Netherlands to less than 1% in Colombia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Homelessness in the United States</span>

In the United States, the number of homeless people on a given night in January 2023 was more than 650,000 according to the Department of Housing and Urban Development. Homelessness has increased in recent years, in large part due to an increasingly severe housing shortage and rising home prices in the United States.

Section 8 of the Housing Act of 1937, commonly known as Section 8, provides rental housing assistance to low-income households in the United States by paying private landlords on behalf of these tenants. Approximately 68% of this assistance benefits seniors, children, and individuals with disabilities. The Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) oversees Section 8 programs, which are administered locally by public housing agencies (PHAs).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Real estate economics</span> Application of economic techniques to real estate markets

Real estate economics is the application of economic techniques to real estate markets. It tries to describe, explain, and predict patterns of prices, supply, and demand. The closely related field of housing economics is narrower in scope, concentrating on residential real estate markets, while the research on real estate trends focuses on the business and structural changes affecting the industry. Both draw on partial equilibrium analysis, urban economics, spatial economics, basic and extensive research, surveys, and finance.

Subsidized housing is government sponsored economic assistance aimed towards alleviating housing costs and expenses for impoverished people with low to moderate incomes. In the United States, subsidized housing is often called "affordable housing". Forms of subsidies include direct housing subsidies, non-profit housing, public housing, rent supplements/vouchers, and some forms of co-operative and private sector housing. According to some sources, increasing access to housing may contribute to lower poverty rates.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Homeless women in the United States</span>

Out of 10,000 female individuals 13 are homeless. Although studies reflect that there are many differences among women suffering homelessness and there is no universal experience, the average homeless woman is 35 years old, has children, is a member of a minority community, and has experienced homelessness more than once in their lifetime.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Affordable housing</span> Housing affordable to those with a median household income

Affordable housing is housing which is deemed affordable to those with a household income at or below the median as rated by the national government or a local government by a recognized housing affordability index. Most of the literature on affordable housing refers to mortgages and a number of forms that exist along a continuum – from emergency homeless shelters, to transitional housing, to non-market rental, to formal and informal rental, indigenous housing, and ending with affordable home ownership.

Housing First is a policy that offers unconditional, permanent housing as quickly as possible to homeless people, and other supportive services afterward. It was first discussed in the 1990s, and in the following decades became government policy in certain locations within the Western world. There is a substantial base of evidence showing that Housing First is both an effective solution to homelessness and a form of cost savings, as it also reduces the use of public services like hospitals, jails, and emergency shelters. Cities like Helsinki and Vienna in Europe have seen dramatic reductions in homelessness due to the adaptation of Housing First policies, as have the North American cities Columbus, Ohio, Salt Lake City, Utah, and Medicine Hat, Alberta.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Subsidized housing in the United States</span> Rental assistance for low-income households

In the United States, subsidized housing is administered by federal, state and local agencies to provide subsidized rental assistance for low-income households. Public housing is priced much below the market rate, allowing people to live in more convenient locations rather than move away from the city in search of lower rents. In most federally-funded rental assistance programs, the tenants' monthly rent is set at 30% of their household income. Now increasingly provided in a variety of settings and formats, originally public housing in the U.S. consisted primarily of one or more concentrated blocks of low-rise and/or high-rise apartment buildings. These complexes are operated by state and local housing authorities which are authorized and funded by the United States Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD). In 2020, there were one million public housing units. In 2022, about 5.2 million American households that received some form of federal rental assistance.

Public housing policies in Canada includes rent controls, as well as subsidized interest rates and grants. Early public housing policy in Canada consisted of public-private lending schemes which focused on expanding home ownership among the middle class. The first major housing initiative in Canada was the Dominion Housing Act of 1935, which increased the amount of credit available for mortgage loans.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Homelessness</span> Lacking stable, safe, functional housing

Homelessness or houselessness – also known as a state of being unhoused or unsheltered – is the condition of lacking stable, safe, and functional housing. The general category includes disparate situations, such as living on the streets, moving between temporary accommodation such as family or friends, living in boarding houses with no security of tenure, and people who leave their domiciles because of civil conflict and are refugees within their country.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Housing inequality</span>

Housing inequality is a disparity in the quality of housing in a society which is a form of economic inequality. The right to housing is recognized by many national constitutions, and the lack of adequate housing can have adverse consequences for an individual or a family. The term may apply regionally, temporally or culturally. Housing inequality is directly related to racial, social, income and wealth inequality. It is often the result of market forces, discrimination and segregation.

Housing discrimination in the United States refers to the historical and current barriers, policies, and biases that prevent equitable access to housing. Housing discrimination became more pronounced after the abolition of slavery in 1865, typically as part of Jim Crow laws that enforced racial segregation. The federal government didn't begin to take action against these laws until 1917, when the Supreme Court struck down ordinances prohibiting blacks from occupying or owning buildings in majority-white neighborhoods in Buchanan v. Warley. However, the federal government as well as local governments continued to be directly responsible for housing discrimination through redlining and race-restricted covenants until the Civil Rights Act of 1968.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Affordable housing in Canada</span>

Affordable housing in Canada is living spaces that are deemed financially accessible to those with a median household income in Canada. The property ladder continuum of affordable housing in Canada includes market, non-market, and government-subsidized housing.

Transitional housing is temporary housing for certain segments of the homeless population, including working homeless people who are earning too little money to afford long-term housing. Transitional housing is set up to transition residents into permanent, affordable housing. It is not in an emergency homeless shelter, but usually a room or apartment in a residence with support services.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Homelessness in Colorado</span> Summary and analysis of homelessness in the state of Colorado

Homelessness is a growing problem in Colorado and is considered the most important social determinants of health. Homelessness is very difficult for many Coloradoans to escape due to the continuous increase in costs for housing in Colorado, along with mental health treatments and other factors. When people are forced to live without stable shelter, they are then exposed to a number of risk factors that affect physical and mental health. Although it is difficult to pin point any one cause of homelessness, there is a complicated combination of societal and individual causes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Eviction in the United States</span> Landlord removals of rental housing tenants in the North American country

Eviction in the United States refers to the pattern of tenant removal by landlords in the United States. In an eviction process, landlords forcibly remove tenants from their place of residence and reclaim the property. Landlords may decide to evict tenants who have failed to pay rent, violated lease terms, or possess an expired lease. Landlords may also choose not to renew a tenant's lease, however, this does not constitute an eviction. In the United States, eviction procedures, landlord rights, and tenant protections vary by state and locality. Historically, the United States has seen changes in domestic eviction rates during periods of major socio-political and economic turmoil—including the Great Depression, the 2008 Recession, and the COVID-19 pandemic. High eviction rates are driven by affordable housing shortages and rising housing costs. Across the United States, low-income and disadvantaged neighborhoods have disproportionately higher eviction rates. Certain demographics—including low income renters, Black and Hispanic renters, women, and people with children—are also at a greater risk of eviction. Additionally, eviction filings remain on renters' public records. This can make it more difficult for renters to access future housing, since most landlords will not rent to a tenant with a history of eviction. Eviction and housing instability are also linked to many negative health and life outcomes, including homelessness, poverty, and poor mental and physical health.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Affordable housing by country</span>

Affordable housing is housing that is deemed affordable to those with a median household income as rated by the national government or a local government by a recognized housing affordability index. A general rule is no more than 30% of gross monthly income should be spent on housing, to be considered affordable as the challenges of promoting affordable housing varies by location.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Housing in the United States</span> Overview of housing in the United States

Housing in the United States comes in a variety of forms and tenures. The rate of homeownership in the United States, as measured by the fraction of units that are owner-occupied, was 64% as of 2017. This rate is less than the rates in other large countries such as China (90%), Russia (89%) Mexico (80%), or Brazil (73%).

The term "affordable housing" refers to housing that is considered economically accessible for individuals and families whose household income falls at or below the Area Median Income (AMI), as evaluated by either national or local government authorities through an officially recognized housing affordability index. However, in the US, the term is mostly used to refer to housing units that are deed restricted to households considered Low-Income, Very Low-Income, and Extremely Low-Income. These units are most often constructed by non-profit "affordable housing developers" who use a combination of private money and government subsidies. For-profit developers, when building market-rate developments, may include some "affordable" units, if required as part of a city's inclusionary zoning mandate.

References

  1. ↑ "housing" . Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press.(Subscription or participating institution membership required.)
  2. ↑ Gwendolyn Wright, Building the Dream: A Social History of Housing in America (MIT press, 1983)
  3. ↑ Haffner, Marietta E. A. (2009). Bridging the Gap Between Social and Market Rented Housing in Six European Countries?. IOS Press. pp. 4+. ISBN   978-1-60750-035-3.
  4. ↑ National Academies of Sciences, Engineering; Division, Health and Medicine; Practice, Board on Population Health and Public Health; Affairs, Policy and Global; Program, Science and Technology for Sustainability; Individuals, Committee on an Evaluation of Permanent Supportive Housing Programs for Homeless (2018-07-11), "The History of Homelessness in the United States", Permanent Supportive Housing: Evaluating the Evidence for Improving Health Outcomes Among People Experiencing Chronic Homelessness, National Academies Press (US), retrieved 2023-05-26{{citation}}: |first4= has generic name (help)
  5. ↑ "Public Housing". HUD.gov / U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD). Retrieved 2022-05-29.
  6. 1 2 Pappas, Allison (2013-02-04). "The History of Public Housing: Started over 70 Years Ago, yet Still Evolving…". SWHELPER. Retrieved 2022-05-29.
  7. ↑ "Public Housing History". National Low Income Housing Coalition. Retrieved 2022-05-29.
  8. ↑ "HUD's Public Housing Program". HUD.gov / U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD). 2017-09-20. Retrieved 2022-05-29.
  9. ↑ "THE 2000 -2009 | HUD USER". www. hud user. gov. Retrieved 2022-05-29.
  10. ↑ "An Agenda for the Future of Public Housing". Center on Budget and Policy Priorities. Retrieved 2022-05-29.
  11. ↑ Schaeffer, Katherine. "A growing share of Americans say affordable housing is a major problem where they live". Pew Research Center. Retrieved 2022-05-29.
  12. ↑ Dept, International Monetary Fund Research (2005-12-22). "Research Summaries: Housing Prices and Macroeconomics". IMF Research Bulletin. 2005 (4). doi:10.5089/9781451929980.026.A001 (inactive 31 January 2024).{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of January 2024 (link)
  13. ↑ Li, R.Y.M. (2018). "Have Housing Prices Gone with the Smelly Wind? Big Data Analysis on Landfill in Hong Kong". Sustainability. 10 (2): 341. doi: 10.3390/su10020341 . S2CID   158813714.
  14. ↑ Rolfe, Steve; Garnham, Lisa; Godwin, Jon; Anderson, Isobel; Seaman, Pete; Donaldson, Cam (2020). "Housing as a social determinant of health and wellbeing: Developing an empirically-informed realist theoretical framework". BMC Public Health. 20 (1): 1138. doi: 10.1186/s12889-020-09224-0 . PMC   7370492 . PMID   32689966.
  15. ↑ Li, Ang; Baker, Emma; Bentley, Rebecca (2022). "Understanding the mental health effects of instability in the private rental sector: A longitudinal analysis of a national cohort". Social Science & Medicine. 296: 114778. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2022.114778. PMID   35151148. S2CID   246614891.
  16. ↑ Dunn, James R. (2020). "Housing and Healthy Child Development: Known and Potential Impacts of Interventions". Annual Review of Public Health. 41: 381–396. doi: 10.1146/annurev-publhealth-040119-094050 . PMID   31874071.


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