Turks in Algeria

Turkish women of Algeria in their traditional dress (c. 1876–1888).

The Turks in Algeria, also commonly referred to as Algerian Turks, ^{[1] [2] [3] [4] [5]} Algerian-Turkish ^{[6] [7]} Algero-Turkish ^[8] and Turkish-Algerians ^[9] were the ethnic Turkish and renegades who emigrated to Algeria during the Ottoman period. A significant number of Turks intermarried with the native population, and the male offspring of these marriages were referred to as Kouloughlis (Turkish : kuloğlu) due to their mixed Turkish and central Maghrebi heritage. ^{[10] [11]} However, in general, intermarriage was discouraged, in order to preserve the "Turkishness" of the community. ^[12] Consequently, the terms "Turks" and "Kouloughlis" have traditionally been used to distinguish between those of full and partial Turkish ancestry. ^[13]

History

Ottoman era (1515–1830)

Hayreddin Barbarossa, an Ottoman admiral, was the founder of the Regency of Algiers (Ottoman Algeria).

The foundation of Ottoman Algeria was directly linked to the establishment of the Ottoman province (beylerbeylik) of the Maghreb at the beginning of the 16th century. ^[14] At the time, fearing that their city would fall into Spanish hands, the inhabitants of Algiers called upon Ottoman corsairs for help. ^[14] Headed by Oruç Reis and his brother Hayreddin Barbarossa, they took over the rule of the city and started to expand their territory into the surrounding areas. Sultan Selim I (r. 1512–20) agreed to assume control of the Maghreb regions ruled by Hayreddin as a province, granting the rank of governor-general (beylerbey) to Hayreddin. In addition, the Sultan sent 2,000 janissaries, accompanied by about 4,000 volunteers to the newly established Ottoman province of the Maghreb, whose capital was to be the city of Algiers. ^[14] These Turks, mainly from Anatolia, called each other "yoldaş" (a Turkish word meaning "comrade") and called their sons born of unions with local women "Kuloğlus", which implied that they considered their children's status as that of the Sultan's servants. ^[14] Likewise, to indicate in the registers that a certain person is an offspring of a Turk and a local woman, the note "ibn al-turki" (or "kuloglu") was added to his name. ^[15]

The exceptionally-high number of Turks greatly affected the character of the city of Algiers and that of the province at large. In 1587, the province was divided into three different provinces, which were established where the modern states of Algeria, Libya and Tunisia were to emerge. Each of the provinces was headed by a Pasha sent from Constantinople for a three-year term. The division of the Maghreb launched the process that led eventually to the janissary corps' rule over the province. ^[16] From the end of the 16th century, Algiers's Ottoman elite chose to emphasise its Turkish identity and to nurture its Turkish character to a point at which it became an ideology. ^[16]

The lifestyle, language, religion, and area of origin of the Ottoman elite's members created remarkable differences between the Algerian Ottoman elite and the indigenous population. ^[17] For example, members of the elite adhered to Hanafi law while the rest of the population subscribed to the Maliki school. ^[17] Most of the elites originated from non-Arab regions of the Empire. Furthermore, most members of the elite spoke Ottoman Turkish while the local population spoke Algerian Arabic and even differed from the rest of the population in their dress. ^[17]

Recruiting the military-administrative elite

From its establishment, the military-administrative elite worked to reinvigorate itself by enlisting volunteers from non-Arab regions of the Ottoman Empire, mainly from Anatolia. ^[15] Hence, local recruiting of Arabs was almost unheard of and during the 18th century a more or less permanent network of recruiting officers was kept in some coastal Anatolian cities and on some of the islands of the Aegean Sea. ^[18] The recruitment policy was therefore one of the means employed to perpetuate the Turkishness of the Ottoman elite and was practiced until the fall of the province in 1830. ^[18]

Marriages to local women and the Kuloğlus

Contrary to all custom, Ahmed Bey ben Mohamed Chérif, a kouloughli, was the last Ottoman Bey of Constantine, in the Regency of Algiers, ruling from 1826 to 1848.

During the 18th century, the militia practiced a restrictive policy on marriages between its members and local women. A married soldier would lose his right of residence in one of the city's eight barracks and the daily ration of bread to which he was entitled. He would also lose his right to purchase a variety of products at a preferential price. ^[18] Nonetheless, the militia's marriage policy made clear distinctions among holders of different ranks: the higher the rank, the more acceptable the marriage of its holder. ^[12] This policy can be understood as part of the Ottoman elite's effort to perpetuate its Turkishness and to maintain its segregation from the rest of the population. ^[12] Furthermore, the militia's marriage policy, in part, emerged from fear of an increase in the number of the kuloğlus. ^[20]

The kuloğlus refer to the male offspring of members of the Ottoman elite and the local Algerian women. ^[20] Due to their link to the local Algerian population via his maternal family, the kuloğlus' loyalty to the Ottoman elite was suspected because of the fear that they might develop another loyalty and so they were considered a potential danger to the elite. ^[20] However, the son of a non-local woman, herself an "outsider" in the local population, represented no such danger to the Ottoman elite. Therefore, the Algerian Ottoman elite had a clear policy dictating the perpetuation of its character as a special social group, which was separated from the local population. ^[20]

Nonetheless, John Douglas Ruedy points out that the kuloğlus also sought to protect their Turkishness:

"Proud and distinctive appearing, Kouloughlis often pretended to speak only Turkish and insisted on worshipping in Hanafi [i.e. Ottoman-built] mosques with men of their own ethnic background. In times of emergency they were called upon to supplement the forces of the ojaq." ^[21]

In the neighbouring province of Tunisia, the maintenance of the Turkishness of the ruling group was not insisted upon, and the kuloğlus could reach the highest ranks of government. However, the janissary corps had lost its supremacy first to the Muradid dynasty (Murad Bey's son was appointed bey), and then to the Husainid dynasty. The Tunisian situation partly explains the continuation of the Algerian janissary corps' recruitment policy and the manifest will to distance the kuloğlus from the real centres of power. ^[22] Nonetheless, high-ranking kuloğlus were in the service of the ocak, in military and in administrative capacities, occupying posts explicitly considered out of bounds for them; although there were no kuloğlus who was dey during the 18th century, this seems to be the only exception. ^[23]

French era (1830–1962)

Once Algeria came under French colonial rule in 1830, approximately 10,000 Turks were expelled and shipped off to Smyrna; moreover, many Turks (alongside other natives) fled to other regions of the Ottoman realms, particularly to Palestine, Syria, Arabia, and Egypt. ^[24] Nonetheless, by 1832, many Algerian-Turkish descended families, who had not left Algeria, joined a coalition with Emir Abdelkader in order to forge the beginning of a powerful resistance movement against French colonial rule. ^[6]

Culture

The Ketchaoua Mosque (Turkish : Keçiova Camii ) in Algiers was built in 1612 by the Ottoman Turks. It was recently restored by the Turkish government.

Due to the three centuries of Ottoman rule in Algeria, today many cultural (particularly in regards to food, religion, and dress - and to a lesser extent language), architectural, as well as musical elements of Algeria are of Turkish origin or influence.

Language

During the Ottoman era, the Ottoman Turkish language was the official governing language in the region, and the Turkish language was spoken mostly by the Algerian Turkish community. ^[17] However, today most Algerian Turks speak the Arabic language as their mother tongue. Nonetheless, the legacy of the Turkish language is still apparent and has influenced many words and vocabulary in Algeria. An estimated 634 Turkish words are still used in Algeria today. ^[26] Therefore, in Algerian Arabic it is possible for a single sentence to include an Arabic subject, a French verb, and for the predicate to be in Berber or Turkish. ^[27]

Moreover, families of Turkish origin have retained their Turkish family surnames; common names include Barbaros, Hayreddin, Osmanî, Stambouli, Torki, Turki, and Uluçali; job titles or functions have also become family names within the Algerian-Turkish community (such as Hazneci, Demirci, Başterzi, Silahtar). ^{[28] [29]}

The Hassan Pasha Mosque (Turkish : Paşa Camii ) in Oran was built in 1797 by the Ottoman Turks.

Religion

The Ottoman Turks brought the teaching of the Hanafi law of Sunni Islam to Algeria; consequently, their lifestyle created remarkable differences between the Ottoman Turks and the indigenous population because the ethnic Arabs and Berbers practiced the Maliki school. ^{[17] [30]}

Today, the Hanafi school is still practiced among the Turkish descended families. Moreover, the Ottoman mosques in Algeria - which are still used by the Turkish minority - are distinguishable by their octagonal minarets which were built in accordance with the traditions of the Hanafi rite. ^{[31] [32]}

Cuisine

Today the Turkish heritage in Algeria is most notably present in their cuisine which they have introduced to Algeria (such as Turkish coffee, Lahmacun, Böreks, desserts and pastries). ^{[28] [33]}

Demographics

Areas of settlement

The Aïn El Turk (the "Fountain of the Turks") in Oran is one of several regions in Algeria named after the Turks.

During the Ottoman era, urban society in the coastal cities of Algeria evolved into an ethnic mix of Arabs, Berbers, Turks and Kouloughlis as well as other ethnic groups (Moors, and Jews). ^[34] Thus, the Turks settled mainly in the big cities of Algeria and formed their own Turkish quarters; remnants of these old Turkish quarters are still visible today, ^[35] such as in Algiers (particularly in the Casbah) ^{[36] [37]} Annaba, ^[38] Biskra, ^[39] Bouïra, ^[40] Médéa, ^{[41] [42]} Mostaganem, ^[42] and Oran (such as in La Moune ^[37] and the areas near the Hassan Basha Mosque ^[43] ). Indeed, today, the descendants of Ottoman-Turkish settlers continue to live in the big cities. ^[44] In particular, the Turks have traditionally had a strong presence in the Tlemcen Province; alongside the Moors, they continue to make up a significant portion of Tlemcen's population and live within their own sectors of the city. ^{[45] [46]}

The Turkish minority have traditionally also had notable populations in various other cities and towns; there is an established Turkish community in Arzew, ^[47] Bougie, ^[48] Berrouaghia, Cherchell, ^[49] Constantine, ^[48] Djidjelli, ^[48] Mascara, Mazagran ^[47] Oued Zitoun, ^[50] and Tebessa. ^[48] There is also an established community in Kabylie (such as Tizi Ouzou ^[51] and Zammora).

Moreover, several suburbs, towns and cities, which have been inhabited by the Turks for centuries, have been named after Ottoman rulers, Turkish families or the Turks in general, including: the Aïn El Turk district (literally "Fountain of the Turks") in Oran, the town of Aïn Torki in the Aïn Defla Province, the Aïn Turk commune in Bouïra, the town of Bir Kasdali and the Bir Kasd Ali District in the Bordj Bou Arréridj Province, ^{[52] [53]} the town of Bougara and the Bougara District located in Blida Province, ^[54] the suburb of Hussein Dey and the Hussein Dey District in the Algiers Province, as well as the town of Salah Bey and the Salah Bey District in the Sétif Province. ^[55]

Diaspora

There are many Algerian Turks who have emigrated to other countries and hence make up part of Algeria's diaspora. Initially, the first wave of migration occurred in 1830 when many Turks were forced to leave the region once the French took control over Algeria; approximately 10,000 were shipped off to Turkey whilst many others migrated to other regions of the Ottoman Empire, including Palestine, Syria, Arabia, and Egypt. ^[24] Furthermore, some Turkish/Kouloughli families also settled in Morocco (such as in Tangier and Tétouan). ^[56]

Common surnames

By provenance

The following list are examples of Turkish origin surnames which express an ethnic and provenance origin from Eastern Thrace and Anatolia - regions which today form the modern borders of the Republic of Turkey:

Surname used in Algeria	Turkish	English translation
Baghlali	Bağlılı	from Bağlı (in Çanakkale) [57]
Bayasli	Payaslı	from Payas [58]
Benkasdali Benkazdali	Ben Kazdağılı	I am from Kazdağı [53] [59]
Benmarchali	Ben Maraşlı	I am from Maraş [60]
Benterki	Ben Türk	I am Turk/Turkish [54]
Bentiurki Benturki	Ben Türk	I am Turk/Turkish [54]
Ben Turkia Ben Turkiya	Ben Türkiye	I am [from] Turkey [54]
Bersali Borsali Borsari Borsla	Bursalı	from Bursa [54] [61]
Boubiasli	Payaslı	from Payas [58]
Chatli	Çatlı	from Çat (in Erzurum) [62]
Chilali	Şileli	from Şileli (in Aydın) [63]
Cholli	Çullu	from Çullu (in Aydın) [63]
Coulourli	Kuloğlu	Kouloughli (mixed Turkish and Algerian origin) [64]
Dengezli Denizli Denzeli	Denizli	from Denizli [65]
Dernali	Edirneli	from Edirne [66]
Djabali	Cebali	from Cebali (a suburb in Istanbul) [67]
Djeghdali	Çağataylı	Chagatai (Turkic language) [68]
Djitli	Çitli	from Çit (in Adana or Bursa) [69]
Douali	Develi	from Develi (in Kayseri) [66]
Guellati	Galatalı	from Galata (in Istanbul) [68]
Kamen	Kaman	Kaman (in Nevşehir) [70]
Karabaghli	Karabağlı	from Karabağ (in Konya) [70]
Karadaniz	Karadeniz	from the Black Sea region [70]
Karaman	Karaman	from Karaman [70]
Kasdali Kasdarli	Kazdağılı	from Kazdağı [53]
Kaya Kayali	Kayalı	from Kaya (applies to the villages in Muğla and Artvin) [53]
Kebzili	Gebzeli	from Gebze (in Kocaeli) [53]
Keicerli	Kayserili	from Kayseri [59]
Kermeli	Kermeli	from the Gulf of Kerme (Gökova) [53]
Kezdali	Kazdağılı	from Kazdağı [59]
Kissarli Kisserli	Kayserili	from Kayseri [59]
Korghlu Korglu Koroghli Korogli	Kuloğlu	Kouloughli (mixed Turkish and Algerian origin) [71]
Koudjali Kouddjali	Kocaeli	from Kocaeli [59] [64]
Koulali	Kulalı	from Kulalı (in Manisa) [64]
Kouloughli Koulougli Kouroughli Kouroughlou	Kuloğlu	A Kouloughli (mixed Turkish and Algerian origin) [64]
Kozlou	Kozlu	from Kozlu (in Zonguldak) [59]
Manamani Manemeni Manemenni	Menemenli	from Menemen (in Izmir) [72]
Mansali	Manisalı	from Manisa [72]
Meglali	Muğlalı	from Muğla [72]
Merchali Mersali	Maraşlı	from Maraş [72]
Osmane Othmani	Osman Osmanlı	Ottoman [28]
Ould Zemirli Ould Zmirli	İzmirli	from Izmir [73]
Rizeli	Rizeli	from Rize [74]
Romeili Roumili	Rumeli	from Rumelia [74]
Sanderli	Çandarli	from Çandarlı [74]
Sandjak Sangaq	Sancak	from [a] sanjak (an administrative unit of the Ottoman Empire) [62]
Satli	Çatlı	from Çat (in Erzurum) [62]
Sekelli	İskeleli	from Iskele (in Muğla, Seyhan, or the island of Cyprus) [62]
Sekli	Sekeli	from Söke (in Aydın) [62]
Skoudarli	Üsküdarlı	from Üsküdar (in Istanbul) [63]
Stamboul Stambouli	İstanbulu	from Istanbul [75]
Tchambaz	Cambaz	Cambaz (in Çanakkale) [76]
Takarli	Taraklı	from Taraklı (in Adapazarı) [63]
Tchanderli Tchenderli	Çandarlı	from Çandarlı [66] [74]
Tekali	Tekeeli	from Teke Peninsula [75]
Terki Terqui	Türki	Turkish (language) [77]
Terkman Terkmani	Türkmenli	Turkmen (from Anatolia/Mesopotamia) [77]
Torki	Türk	Turkish [77]
Tourki Tourquie Turki	Türk	Turk/Turkish [77]
Yarmali	Yarmalı	from Yarma (in Konya) [73]
Zemerli Zemirli Zmerli Zmirli	İzmirli	from Izmir [73] [78]
Zemir Zmir	İzmir	Izmir [78]

The following list are examples of Turkish origin surnames which express a provenance settlement of Turkish families in regions of Algeria:

Surname used in Algeria	Turkish	Meaning in English
Tlemsanili Tilimsani	Tilimsanılı	from Tlemcen [77]

The following list are examples of Turkish origin surnames traditionally used by Turkish families in Constantine:

Acheuk-Youcef, ^[55] Ali Khodja, ^[55] Bachtarzi, ^[55] Benabdallah Khodja, ^[55] Benelmadjat, ^[55] Bestandji, ^[55] Bendali Braham, ^[55] Bentchakar, ^[55] Bensakelbordj, ^[55] Bentchikou, ^[55] Khaznadar, ^[55] Salah Bey, ^[55] Tchanderli Braham. ^[55]

By occupation

The following list are examples of some Turkish origin surnames which express the traditional occupation of Turkish families which settled in Algeria:

Surname used in Algeria	Turkish	English translation
Agha	ağa	agha [79]
Ahtchi	ahçı, aşçı	cook, keeper of restaurant [79]
Anberdji	ambarcı	storekeeper [79]
Aoulak	ulak	messenger, courier [57]
Arbadji	arabacı	driver [79]
Atchi	atçı	horse breeder [79]
Bacha	paşa	a pasha [80]
Bachagha	başağa	head agha [80]
Bachchaouch	başçavuş	sergeant major [80]
Bachesais	başseyis	head stableman [80]
Bachtaftar	başdefterdar	treasurer [80]
Bachtarzi	baş terzi	chief tailor [80]
Bachtoubdji	baştopçu	chief cannoneer, artilleryman [80]
Baldji	balcı	maker or seller of honey [80]
Bazarbacha Bazarbarchi	pazarbaşı	head of bazaar [58]
Benabadji	ben abacı	[I am a] maker or seller of garments [81]
Benchauch	ben çavuş	[I am a] sergeant [60]
Benchoubane	ben çoban	[I am a] shepherd [54]
Bendamardji	ben demirci	[I am a] metalworker [81] [66]
Bendali	ben deli	[I am a] deli (Ottoman troops) [81]
Benlagha	ben ağa	[I am a] agha [60]
Benstaali	ben usta	[I am a] master, workman, craftsman [60]
Bentobdji	ben topçu	[I am a] cannoneer [54]
Bestandji Bostandji	bostancı	bostandji [61]
Bouchakdji	bıçakçı	cutler [76]
Boudjakdji	ocakçı	chimney sweep [76]
Boyagi	boyacı	painter [61]
Chalabi Challabi	çelebi	educated person, gentlemen [76]
Chaouche	çavuş	sergeant [62]
Chembaz Chembazi	cambaz	acrobat [63]
Damardji Damerdji	demirci	metalworker [81] [66]
Debladji	tavlacı	stable boy or backgammon player [65]
Dey	dayı	officer or maternal uncle [65]
Djadouadji	kahveci	coffee maker or seller [82]
Djaidji	çaycı	tea seller [82]
Doumandji	dümenci	helmsman [82]
Doumardji	tımarcı	stableman [67]
Dumangi	dümenci	helmsman [82]
Dumargi	tımarcı	stableman [67]
Fenardji	fenerci	lighthouse keeper [67]
Fernakdji	fırıncı	baker [67]
Hazerchi	hazırcı	seller of ready-made clothing [69]
Kahouadji	kahveci	café owner or coffee maker/grower [69]
Kalaidji	kalaycı	tinner [70]
Kaouadji	kahveci	café owner or coffee maker/grower [69]
Kasbadji	kasapcı	butcher [53]
Kassab	Kasap	butcher [53]
Kaznadji	hazinedar	keeper of a treasury [53]
Kebabdji	kebapçı	kebab seller [83]
Kehouadji	kahveci	café owner or coffee maker/grower [53]
Ketrandji	katrancı	tar seller [59]
Khandji	hancı	innkeeper [69]
Khaznadar	hazinedar	keeper of a treasury [69]
Khaznadji	hazinedar	keeper of a treasury [83]
Khedmadji	hizmetçi	maid, helper [83]
Khodja Khoudja	hoca	teacher [83]
Louldji	lüleci	maker or seller of pipes [72]
Koumdadji	komando	commando [64]
Moumdji Moumedji	mumcu	candle maker [84]
Ouldchakmadji	çakmakçı	maker or seller of flints/ maker or repairer of flintlock guns [84]
Nefradji	nüfreci	prepares amulets [84]
Pacha	paşa	a pasha [84]
Rabadji	arabacı	driver [64]
Rais	reis	chief, leader [64]
Saboudji Saboundji	sabuncu	maker or seller of soap [74]
Selmadji	silmeci	cleaner or to measure [63]
Serkadji	sirkeci	maker or seller of vinegar [63]
Slahdji	silahçı	gunsmith [63]
Staali	usta	master, workman, craftsman [75]
Tchambaz	cambaz	acrobat [76]

Other surnames

Surname used in Algeria	Turkish	English translation
Arslan	aslan	a lion [79]
Arzouli	arzulu	desirous, ambitious [79]
Baba Babali	baba	a father [57]
Badji	bacı	elder sister [57]
Bektach	bektaş	member of the Bektashi Order [58]
Belbey	bey	mister, gentlemen [58]
Belbiaz	beyaz	white [58]
Benchicha	ben şişe	[I am] a bottle [60]
Benhadji	ben hacı	[I am] a Hadji [81]
Benkara	ben Qāra	From Black Sea region in Anatolia [60]
Bensari	ben sarı	[I am] blonde [60]
Bentobal Bentobbal	ben topal	[I am] crippled [54]
Bermak	parmak	finger [54]
Beiram Biram	bayram	holiday, festival [61]
Beyaz	beyaz	white [54]
Bougara Boulkara	bu kara	[this is] dark [54] [76]
Boukendjakdji	kancık	mean [76]
Caliqus	çalıkuşu	goldcrest [76]
Chalabi Challabi	çelebi	educated person, gentlemen [74]
Chelbi	çelebi	educated person, gentlemen [62]
Cherouk	çürük	rotten [63]
Dali Dalibey Dalisaus	deli	brave, crazy [66]
Damir	demir	metal [66]
Daouadji	davacı	litigant [66]
Deramchi	diremci	currency [65]
Djabali	çelebi	educated person, gentlemen [67]
Doumaz	duymaz	deaf [67]
Eski	eski	old [67]
Gaba	kaba	rough, heavy [67]
Goutchouk	küçük	small, little [69] [71]
Gueddjali	gacal	domestic [68]
Guendez	gündüz	daytime [68]
Guermezli	görmezli	blind [69] [71]
Guertali	kartal	eagle [69]
Hadji	hacı	Hadji [69]
Hidouk	haydut	bandit [83]
Ioldach	yoldaş	companion, comrade [84]
Kara	kara	dark [84]
Karabadji	kara bacı	dark sister [70]
Kardache	kardeş	brother [70]
Karkach	karakaş	dark eyebrows [84]
Kermaz	görmez	blind [69] [71]
Kerroudji	kurucu	founder, builder, veteran [59]
Kertali	kartal	eagle [59]
Koutchouk	küçük	small, little [69] [71]
Lalali Lalili	laleli	tulip [71]
Maldji	malcı	cattle producer [84]
Mestandji	mestan	drunk [84]
Oldach	yoldaş	companion, comrade [84]
Oualan	oğlan	boy [73]
Ouksel	yüksel	to succeed, achieve [73]
Ourak	orak	sickle [73]
Salakdji	salakça	silly [74]
Salaouatchi Salouatchi	salavatçaı	prayer [74]
Sari	sarı	yellow or blond [62]
Sarmachek	sarmaşık	vine [62]
Sersar Sersoub	serseri	layabout, vagrant [63]
Tache	taş	stone, pebble [76]
Tarakli	taraklı	having a comb, crested [76]
Tchalabi	çelebi	educated person, gentlemen [76]
Tchalikouche	çalıkuşu	goldcrest [76]
Tenbel	tembel	lazy [77]
Tobal Toubal	topal	cripple [77]
Yataghan Yataghen	yatağan	yatagan [73]
Yazli	yazılı	written [73]
Yekkachedji	yakışmak	to suit [78]
Yesli	yaslı	mourning [78]
Yoldas	yoldaş	companion, comrade [84]

See also

• Algeria–Turkey relations
• List of Algerians of Turkish origin
• Kouloughli
• Ottoman Algeria
• Aïn El Turk
• List of Pashas and Deys of Algiers
• Turkish minorities in the former Ottoman Empire
  • Turks in Tunisia
  • Turks in Libya
  • Turks in the Arab world
  • Turks in the Balkans
  • Turkish Cypriots
• Turks in France

Notes

^  a: "Kouloughlis" refers to the offspring (or descendants) of Turkish fathers and Algerian mothers. ^[21]

References

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7. Killian, Caitlin (2006), North African Women in France: Gender, Culture, and Identity, Stanford University Press, p. 145, ISBN   0804754209
8. Murray, Roger; Wengraf, Tom (1963), "The Algerian Revolution (Part 1)", New Left Review , 1 (22): 41
9. McMurray, David Andrew (1992), "The Contemporary Culture of Nador, Morocco, and the Impact of International Labor Migration", University of Texas : 390
10. Stone, Martin (1997), The Agony of Algeria, C. Hurst & Co. Publishers, p. 29, ISBN   1-85065-177-9 .
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30. Gordon, Louis A.; Oxnevad, Ian (2016), Middle East Politics for the New Millennium: A Constructivist Approach, Lexington Books, p. 72, ISBN   978-0739196984, An Ottoman military class that separated itself from the general Algerian population through language, dress and religious affiliation... Unlike the Maliki Algerian masses, the Ottoman-Algerians remained affiliated with the Hanafi school of Islamic jurisprudence, and went to great lengths to replenish their ranks with Ottoman Turks from Anatolia...
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45. Appiah, Anthony; Gates, Henry Louis (2010), Encyclopedia of Africa, Volume 1, Oxford University Press, p. 475, ISBN   978-0-19-533770-9 .
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49. Vogelsang-Eastwood, Gillian (2016), "Embroidery from Algerria", Encyclopedia of Embroidery from the Arab World, Bloomsbury Publishing, p. 226, ISBN   978-0857853974 .
50. Rozet, Claude (1850), Algérie, Firmin-Didot, p. 107.
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