Campylobacter upsaliensis

Last updated

Campylobacter upsaliensis
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Bacteria
Phylum: Campylobacterota
Class: "Campylobacteria"
Order: Campylobacterales
Family: Campylobacteraceae
Genus: Campylobacter
Species:
C. upsaliensis
Binomial name
Campylobacter upsaliensis
Sandstedt and Ursing 1991 [1]

Campylobacter upsaliensis is a gram-negative bacteria in the Campylobacter genus. [2] C. upsaliensis is found worldwide, and is a common cause of campylobacteriosis in humans, as well as gastroenteritis in dogs and cats. [3] Human infections are primarily associated with raw or undercooked meat and contaminated water sources, however there is some zoonotic risk associated with the spread from dogs and cats. [4] C. upsaliensis primarily affects the gastrointestinal tract as it damages gastrointestinal epithelial cells. [5] There are many methods for detecting C.upsaliensis including PCR and ELISA, however there is no current gold standard in detection techniques. [4] Infection is typically self limiting, however there is antimicrobial therapy available. [6]

Contents

Cellular morphology and biochemistry

Scanning electron micrograph of a Campylobacter species showing the characteristic curved/spiral appearance, and a single polar flagellum CampylobacterSEM.jpg
Scanning electron micrograph of a Campylobacter species showing the characteristic curved/spiral appearance, and a single polar flagellum

Campylobacter upsaliensis shares the characteristic appearance of other Campylobacter species: it is a curved to spiral, gram-negative rod that displays darting motility. [2] [7] The bacterium either have one polar flagellum, or two flagella with one at either end, and can range from 0.2μm to 0.5μm in width and 0.5μm to 8μm in length. When grown on blood agar the colonies appear smooth, well defined, and grey to translucent. [2] C. upsaliensis is catalase negative, distinguishing it from some other Campylobacter species which are catalase positive. [8] This species is also considered thermotolerant, having been shown to grow in culture at 42 °C, and microaerophilic, generally requiring an oxygen concentration around 5%. [2] [9] In addition, C. upsaliensis is oxidase positive, like many other species within the genera. [2] [8] [10]

Epidemiology

Campylobacter upsaliensis is found worldwide and is among the predominant Campylobacter spp. associated with enteritis in companion animals. [11] Diarrhetic dogs are considered a possible source for human infections, though there may also be host-specific strains. Sources for companion animals include raw or undercooked meats, especially poultry. [12] [13] Poor sanitary conditions in kennels and shelters where animals are in direct contact with feces have also been implicated. [14] Humans can become infected after contact with contaminated cat and dog feces, which accounts for a small percentage of human campylobacteriosis cases. [13] The majority of human cases are food-borne. Younger animals and children with underdeveloped immune systems are at greatest risk of infection. [14] C. upsaliensis infections are usually isolated events that don't evolve into outbreaks, and the infection is generally self-limiting. [13]

Dogs and cats may also be asymptomatically infected and act as carriers, so dog and cat feces should always be handled carefully even if the animal isn't diarrhetic. It is unknown how long infected animals shed C. upsaliensis in feces, but stressful events may increase shedding. [14] The proportion of animals carrying C. upsaliensis is 66% in cats 75% in dogs. [15]

Disease

Dogs

In dogs, Campylobacter upsaliensis can cause a mild to moderate form bacterial gastroenteritis. [4] It is also frequently associated with part of the normal microbiota in a large proportion of dogs. [16] In affected animals, symptoms include watery to mucoid diarrhea, abdominal cramping, lethargy and fever. [17] The infection is typically self limiting and doesn't require intervention. [17] Since C.upsaliensis is isolated from many healthy dogs, a positive identification of C. upsaliensisfrom a diarrhetic dog does not necessarily indicate causation. [18]

Humans

Campylobacter upsaliensis infections in humans can cause Campylobacteriosis, a more significant gastroenteritis. [3] C. upsaliensis is the second most common Campylobacter species isolated in humans with diarrhea (behind Campylobacter jejuni ). [3] Clinical signs include fever, diarrhea (sometimes bloody), and stomach cramps. [19] It is typically a self limiting infection, however immunosuppressed individuals are more at risk for adverse events, such as sepsis. [5] Campylobacteriosis is typically associated with ingestion of contaminated meat products, however there is some zoonotic risk of pet ownership, as many dogs are asymptomatic shedders of the bacteria. [13]

Other Campylobacter species ( C. jejuni ) have been clearly linked to causing Guillain-Barre Syndrome, an autoimmune disorder causing muscle weakness and flaccid paralysis. [20] There is less evidence that Guillain-Barre syndrome may be a potential sequela of Campylobacter upsaliensis infection, however C. upsaliensis has been cultured from individuals with Guillain-Barre, indicating that a potential relationship between the two cannot be ruled out. [21]

Virulence

Research in the virulence characteristics of this pathogen is currently very limited due to its high susceptibility to the antibiotics commonly used in Campylobacter selective media. [22] A more in-depth knowledge of such knowledge will allow better susceptibility testing, and new antimicrobial therapies to be developed, and help us with the control and spread of this pathogen.

While a dog or cat can be asymptomatic, they may be a carrier and shed the microbe for long periods of time. [23] The transmission of C. upsaliensis occurs by a fecal-oral route; most commonly via contaminated meat, dairy products, and other contaminated food and water sources. [23] Severity of the disease depends on quantity of organisms ingested, other gastrointestinal pathogens present, prior exposure and the immune system of the animal. [23] Since the optimal growth temperature, and pH for Campylobacter species are between 37 and 42 °C, and 6.5–7.5 respectively, the GI tract provides a good environment for its growth. [23]

The characteristic corkscrew motility of C. upsaliensis allows it to dock to the mucus (on enterocytes) before reaching the epithelial cells- it expresses adhesin(s) that recognize mucin on epithelial cells, with which it can gains access to plasma membrane receptors. [24] Via the protein encoded by licABCD gene, it then acquires choline to produce phosphorylcholine which is transferred to lipoteichoic acids thus allowing attachment to epithelial cells. [25] The flagella on Campylobacter functions as a type III secretion system to secrete several toxins. [26] One of these toxins has a cytolethal distending function. [27] It is a tripartite toxin that penetrates host epithelial cell nucleus, breaks double stranded DNA, resulting in arrest of cell cycle in G2 phase, increase in host-pathogen contact time, disruption of tight junctions, and increase in overall intestinal permeability. [26] There is no research that shows that this microbe internalizes itself into the host epithelial cells, as part of its virulence. [22]

A typical infection results in inflammation of lamina propria, with an infiltration of neutrophils and mononuclear cells. Lesions are grossly seen as diffuse colonic inflammation. [23] Hemorrhage and edema can therefore be visible on intestines. [26] Acute diarrhea (fluid, mucoid, or bloody feces), vomiting, anorexia and fever can be seen clinically. [23]

Diagnosis

Because Campylobacter upsaliensis is considered a commensal bacteria of the gastrointestinal tract in many animals, diagnosis of C. upsaliensis can be cumbersome and laboratory results should be taken into consideration with regards to the context of the patient and other diagnostics. [28] Vomiting, diarrhea, dysentery, fever, and abdominal pain are all common symptoms seen in Campylobacteriosis infections. [2] Ruling out infectious diseases, underlying pathologies of other organ systems with blood chemistry panels, and obstructive disorders with radiographs are all elements of a thorough work-up in these cases. [4] Preliminary diagnostics could include a gram stain fecal smear looking characteristic corkscrew-like motility and gram-negative staining. [29] This only confirms the presence of Campylobacter-like-organisms to warrant further diagnostics. [30] There are many laboratory testing methods that have been implemented for Campylobacter spp. Identification including culture based methods, biochemical testing, immunoassays, and molecular methods such as PCR and whole genome sequencing. [4] Despite the vast array of methods available, no gold standard method of diagnostic test has been agreed upon, and each method has its benefits and drawbacks that should be considered within the scope of each case. [4]

Culture methods

For best isolation results, it is imperative that fecal samples be collected, refrigerated and sent to the diagnostic laboratory as soon as possible to maintain sample integrity. [4] For rectal swabs, Amies or Cary-Blair transport mediums are recommended in order to protect the sample from toxic effects of oxygen on Campylobacter species. [4] Traditionally, filtration methods have been used to help isolate C. upsaliensis with filter pore size of 0.45 𝛍m in order to decrease contamination from other bacteria and fungi. [2] There are limitations to this method however as samples with less than 105 CFU per gram of feces are not likely to be successfully isolated. [2] Culture environments with 5–10% oxygen and 1–10% carbon dioxide at 37 °C is recommended. [4] Selective medias with oxygen scavenging properties from blood or charcoal are generally used with additions of antibiotics like cefoperazone and antifungals. On blood agars like Skirrow's media, C. upsaliensis colonies appear smooth, pink, regular edged, shiny and convex. On charcoal agars, colonies appear flat, grey with a metallic sheen, and are likely to spread. [29] Theoretically, culture methods are great for susceptibility testing to guide antimicrobial use in addition to its use in identification, however the lack of internationally accepted criteria limits susceptibility testing in this species. [4]

Biochemical tests

Campylobacter upsaliensis is a catalase negative species that can be further differentiated from other Campylobacter species by its inability to produce hydrogen sulfide on triple sugar iron as well as a positive oxidase test. [2] Additionally it cannot hydrolyze hippurate like other species and is considered sensitive to nalidixic acid. [4] Further strain identification may be warranted in epidemiological investigations and requires serotyping or molecular based methods. [4]

Immunoassays

ELISA have been developed and utilized in commercial laboratories for Campylobacter species detection however it has been noted that cross reactivity between species remains an issue and validation for its use in diagnosis of campylobacteriosis in companion animals has not yet been confirmed. [4]

Molecular methods

PCR methods including multiplex and real-time PCR are now routinely used for C. upsaliensis identification and is being favoured for its rapid turnaround time not needing to undergo tedious culturing. [4] Multilocus sequence typing (MLST) has also been implemented for diagnosis of C. upsaliensis where seven fragments of “housekeeping” genes are amplified and cross referenced through a database. [4] This has proven particularly useful for identifying particular strains which may be useful in epidemiological investigations. [4]

Other methods

Matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight (MALDI-TOF) is a diagnostic technology that utilizes mass spectrometry to identify many bacterial species including C. upsaliensis and is becoming more commonly used as it is relatively inexpensive, more rapid than biochemical testing, and relatively accurate. [4] Limitations to its use should be considered in the fact that bacterial culture must first be performed which as previously described, can be difficult with microaerophilic specifications for C. upsaliensis. [4]

Treatment

In humans, most cases of Campylobacteriosis caused by C. upsalenisis are self limiting, and do not require any intervention besides fluid and electrolyte therapy. [31] For individuals at risk of more severe disease (immunocompromised, elderly or pregnant women), antibiotic treatment is indicated. [31] The recommended antimicrobial treatment is azithromycin. [32] Ciprofloxacin has historically been another antibiotic of choice, however there is increasing resistance to fluoroquinolone antibiotics in Campylobacter bacteria. [33] Antibiotic sensitivity testing should always be done prior to starting treatment. [34]

Similarly to humans, most cases of Campylobacter upsaliensis in dogs are self limiting, and do not require treatment. [6] If infection is severe and persistent, fluid therapy and antimicrobial therapy are indicated. [6] The antimicrobial of choice in dogs is erythromycin. [6] Due to the potential for zoonosis with Campylobacter upsaliensis infections in dogs, antimicrobial treatment may be beneficial in reducing bacteria shed in faces, thus reducing the risk of humans in contact with the dog. [6]

Related Research Articles

<i>Campylobacter</i> Genus of gram-negative bacteria

Campylobacter is a type of bacteria that can cause a diarrheal disease in people. Its name means "curved bacteria", as the germ typically appears in a comma or "s" shape. According to its scientific classification, it is a genus of gram-negative bacteria that is motile.

<i>Fusobacterium</i> Genus of bacteria

Fusobacterium is a genus of obligate anaerobic, Gram-negative, non-sporeforming bacteria belonging to Gracilicutes. Individual cells are slender, rod-shaped bacilli with pointed ends. Fusobacterium was discovered in 1900 by Courmont and Cade and is common in the flora of humans.

<i>Haemophilus ducreyi</i> Species of gram-negative, pathogenic bacterium

Haemophilus ducreyi are fastidious gram-negative coccobacilli bacteria.

<i>Campylobacter jejuni</i> Species of bacterium

Campylobacter jejuni is a species of pathogenic bacteria that is commonly associated with poultry, and is also often found in animal feces. This species of microbe is one of the most common causes of food poisoning in Europe and in the US, with the vast majority of cases occurring as isolated events rather than mass outbreaks. Active surveillance through the Foodborne Diseases Active Surveillance Network (FoodNet) indicates that about 20 cases are diagnosed each year for each 100,000 people in the US, while many more cases are undiagnosed or unreported; the CDC estimates a total of 1.5 million infections every year. The European Food Safety Authority reported 246,571 cases in 2018, and estimated approximately nine million cases of human campylobacteriosis per year in the European Union. Campylobacter jejuni infections are increasing at an alarming rate in Europe, North America, and Australia. In Africa, Asia, and the Middle East, data indicates that C. jejuni infections are endemic.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Campylobacteriosis</span> Medical condition

Campylobacteriosis is among the most common infections caused by a bacterium in humans, often as a foodborne illness. It is caused by the Campylobacter bacterium, most commonly C. jejuni. It produces an inflammatory, sometimes bloody, diarrhea or dysentery syndrome, and usually cramps, fever and pain.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Salmonellosis</span> Infection caused by Salmonella bacteria

Salmonellosis is a symptomatic infection caused by bacteria of the Salmonella type. It is the most common disease to be known as food poisoning, these are defined as diseases, usually either infectious or toxic in nature, caused by agents that enter the body through the ingestion of food. In humans, the most common symptoms are diarrhea, fever, abdominal cramps, and vomiting. Symptoms typically occur between 12 hours and 36 hours after exposure, and last from two to seven days. Occasionally more significant disease can result in dehydration. The old, young, and others with a weakened immune system are more likely to develop severe disease. Specific types of Salmonella can result in typhoid fever or paratyphoid fever. Typhoid fever and paratyphoid fever are specific types of salmonellosis, known collectively as enteric fever, and are, respectively, caused by salmonella typhi & paratyphi bacteria, which are only found in humans. Most commonly, salmonellosis cases arise from salmonella bacteria from animals, and chicken is a major source for these infections.

<i>Bordetella</i> Genus of bacteria

Bordetella is a genus of small, Gram-negative, coccobacilli bacteria of the phylum Pseudomonadota. Bordetella species, with the exception of B. petrii, are obligate aerobes, as well as highly fastidious, or difficult to culture. All species can infect humans. The first three species to be described ; are sometimes referred to as the 'classical species'. Two of these are also motile.

<i>Campylobacter fetus</i> Species of bacterium

Campylobacter fetus is a rod-shaped, gram-negative species of bacteria within the genus Campylobacter of phylum Pseudomonadota. Identification of C. fetus species in infected animals or people is routinely performed by culture on blood or cefoperazone deoxycholate agar. Subspecies of C. fetus commonly causes reproductive disease in ruminants and gastrointestinal disease in humans. Transmission of C. fetus subspecies venerealis occurs mainly through venereal contact while transmission of C. fetus subspecies fetus occurs mainly through ingestion of bacteria in a contaminated environment. Infertility in cattle and abortion in sheep are common outcomes of infection associated with C. fetus subspecies venerealis and C. fetus subspecies fetus, respectively. Disease in humans occurs through zoonotic transmission of C. fetus mainly via ingestion of contaminated food or water sources. C. fetus can be diagnosed with polymerase chain reaction assays, enzyme linked immunosorbent assays and vaginal mucus agglutination testing. As vaccines are typically not efficient in preventing future spread, infected bulls are often culled. Human infections may be treated with erythromycin as antimicrobial resistance has been emerging for the fluoroquinolones.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pathogenic bacteria</span> Disease-causing bacteria

Pathogenic bacteria are bacteria that can cause disease. This article focuses on the bacteria that are pathogenic to humans. Most species of bacteria are harmless and are often beneficial but others can cause infectious diseases. The number of these pathogenic species in humans is estimated to be fewer than a hundred. By contrast, several thousand species are part of the gut flora present in the digestive tract.

Rickettsia typhi is a small, aerobic, obligate intracellular, rod shaped gram negative bacterium. It belongs to the typhus group of the Rickettsia genus, along with R. prowazekii. R. typhi has an uncertain history, as it may have long gone shadowed by epidemic typhus. This bacterium is recognized as a biocontainment level 2/3 organism. R. typhi is a flea-borne disease that is best known to be the causative agent for the disease murine typhus, which is an endemic typhus in humans that is distributed worldwide. As with all rickettsial organisms, R. typhi is a zoonotic agent that causes the disease murine typhus, displaying non-specific mild symptoms of fevers, headaches, pains and rashes. There are two cycles of R. typhi transmission from animal reservoirs containing R. typhi to humans: a classic rat-flea-rat cycle that is most well studied and common, and a secondary periodomestic cycle that could involve cats, dogs, opossums, sheep, and their fleas.

Arcobacter is a genus of Gram-negative, spiral-shaped bacteria in the phylum Campylobacterota. It shows an unusually wide range of habitats, and some species can be human and animal pathogens. Species of the genus Arcobacter are found in both animal and environmental sources, making it unique among the Campylobacterota. This genus currently consists of five species: A. butzleri, A. cryaerophilus, A. skirrowii, A. nitrofigilis, and A. sulfidicus, although several other potential novel species have recently been described from varying environments. Three of these five known species are pathogenic. Members of this genus were first isolated in 1977 from aborted bovine fetuses. They are aerotolerant, Campylobacter-like organisms, previously classified as Campylobacter. The genus Arcobacter, in fact, was created as recently as 1992. Although they are similar to this other genus, Arcobacter species can grow at lower temperatures than Campylobacter, as well as in the air, which Campylobacter cannot.

Edwardsiella tarda is a member of the family Hafniaceae. The bacterium is a facultatively anaerobic, small, motile, gram negative, straight rod with flagella. Infection causes Edwardsiella septicemia in channel catfish, eels, and flounder. Edwardsiella tarda is also found in largemouth bass and freshwater species such as rainbow trout. It is a zoonosis and can infect a variety of animals including fish, amphibians, reptiles, and mammals. Edwardsiella tarda has also been the cause of periodic infections for various animals within zoos. E. tarda has a worldwide distribution and can be found in pond water, mud, and the intestine of fish and other marine animals. It is spread by carrier animal feces.

Campylobacter coli is a Gram-negative, microaerophilic, non-endospore-forming, S-shaped bacterial species within genus Campylobacter. In humans, C. coli can cause campylobacteriosis, a diarrhoeal disease which is the most frequently reported foodborne illness in the European Union. C. coli grows slowly with an optimum temperature of 42 °C. When exposed to air for long periods, they become spherical or coccoid shaped.

Campylobacter concisus is a Gram-negative, highly fastidious, mesophilic bacterium that grows under both anaerobic and microaerobic conditions with the presence of hydrogen significantly aiding growth. Motile, with either unipolar or bipolar flagella, the organisms have a characteristic spiral/corkscrew appearance and are oxidase-positive. Although the human oral cavity is the natural colonization site of the bacterium, C. concisus may also colonize the intestinal tract of some individuals. In particular, several studies have reported higher intestinal prevalence of C. concisus in patients with IBD compared to healthy controls, which has led to current speculation of the bacterium's implication in the induction of Crohn's disease.

Phosphoglycosyl transferase C (PglC) is an enzyme belonging to a class known as monotopic phosphoglycosyl transferases (PGT). PGTs are required for the synthesis of glycoconjugates on the membrane surface of bacteria. Glycoconjugates, such as glycoproteins, are imperative for bacterial communication as well as host cell interactions between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells lending to bacteria's pathogenicity.

Campylobacter lanienae is a species of Campylobacter found in humans and other animals. Like other Campylobacter species, it is rod-shaped, non-glucose-fermenting, oxidase- and catalase-positive, Gram-negative and motile.

Staphylococcus schleiferi is a Gram-positive, cocci-shaped bacterium of the family Staphylococcaceae. It is facultatively anaerobic, coagulase-variable, and can be readily cultured on blood agar where the bacterium tends to form opaque, non-pigmented colonies and beta (β) hemolysis. There exists two subspecies under the species S. schleiferi: Staphylococcus schleiferi subsp. schleiferi and Staphylococcus schleiferi subsp. coagulans.

Staphylococcus pseudintermedius is a gram positive coccus bacteria of the genus Staphylococcus found worldwide. It is primarily a pathogen for domestic animals, but has been known to affect humans as well. S. pseudintermedius is an opportunistic pathogen that secretes immune modulating virulence factors, has many adhesion factors, and the potential to create biofilms, all of which help to determine the pathogenicity of the bacterium. Diagnoses of Staphylococcus pseudintermedius have traditionally been made using cytology, plating, and biochemical tests. More recently, molecular technologies like MALDI-TOF, DNA hybridization and PCR have become preferred over biochemical tests for their more rapid and accurate identifications. This includes the identification and diagnosis of antibiotic resistant strains.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Antibiotic use in livestock</span> Use of antibiotics for any purpose in the husbandry of livestock

Antibiotic use in livestock is the use of antibiotics for any purpose in the husbandry of livestock, which includes treatment when ill (therapeutic), treatment of a group of animals when at least one is diagnosed with clinical infection (metaphylaxis), and preventative treatment (prophylaxis). Antibiotics are an important tool to treat animal as well as human disease, safeguard animal health and welfare, and support food safety. However, used irresponsibly, this may lead to antibiotic resistance which may impact human, animal and environmental health.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Milk borne diseases</span>

Milk borne diseases are any diseases caused by consumption of milk or dairy products infected or contaminated by pathogens. Milk borne diseases are one of the recurrent foodborne illnesses—between 1993 and 2012 over 120 outbreaks related to raw milk were recorded in the US with approximately 1,900 illnesses and 140 hospitalisations. With rich nutrients essential for growth and development such as proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, and vitamins in milk, pathogenic microorganisms are well nourished and are capable of rapid cell division and extensive population growth in this favourable environment. Common pathogens include bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites and among them, bacterial infection is the leading cause of milk borne diseases.

References

  1. ↑ "Campylobacter". LPSN . Retrieved 1 March 2019.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Bourke, B.; Chan, V. L.; Sherman, P. (July 1998). "Campylobacter upsaliensis: waiting in the wings". Clinical Microbiology Reviews. 11 (3): 440–449. doi:10.1128/CMR.11.3.440. ISSN   0893-8512. PMC   88890 . PMID   9665977.
  3. 1 2 3 Weese, Scott (2009-11-20). "Campylobacter upsaliensis: an overlooked problem?". Worms & Germs Blog. Retrieved 2020-10-26.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Acke, E. (September 2018). "Campylobacteriosis in dogs and cats: a review". New Zealand Veterinary Journal. 66 (5): 221–228. doi:10.1080/00480169.2018.1475268. ISSN   1176-0710. PMID   29756542. S2CID   21678823.
  5. 1 2 Patton, C. M.; Shaffer, N.; Edmonds, P.; Barrett, T. J.; Lambert, M. A.; Baker, C.; Perlman, D. M.; Brenner, D. J. (January 1989). "Human disease associated with "Campylobacter upsaliensis" (catalase-negative or weakly positive Campylobacter species) in the United States". Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 27 (1): 66–73. doi:10.1128/JCM.27.1.66-73.1989. ISSN   0095-1137. PMC   267234 . PMID   2913038.
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 "Campylobacter Infection in Dogs". vca_corporate. Retrieved 2020-11-28.
  7. ↑ Goossens, H.; Pot, B.; Vlaes, L.; Van den Borre, C.; Van den Abbeele, R.; Van Naelten, C.; Levy, J.; Cogniau, H.; Marbehant, P.; Verhoef, J. (May 1990). "Characterization and description of "Campylobacter upsaliensis" isolated from human feces". Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 28 (5): 1039–1046. doi:10.1128/JCM.28.5.1039-1046.1990. ISSN   0095-1137. PMC   267860 . PMID   2351720.
  8. 1 2 Steinbrueckner, B.; Haerter, G.; Pelz, K.; Kist, M. (1999-10-15). "Routine identification of Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli from human stool samples". FEMS Microbiology Letters. 179 (2): 227–232. doi:10.1111/j.1574-6968.1999.tb08732.x. ISSN   0378-1097. PMID   10518720.
  9. ↑ Kvalsvig, A.; Baker, M. G.; Sears, A.; French, N. (2014-01-01), "Bacteria: Campylobacter", in Motarjemi, Yasmine (ed.), Encyclopedia of Food Safety, Waltham: Academic Press, pp. 369–380, ISBN   978-0-12-378613-5 , retrieved 2020-10-31
  10. ↑ Yamazaki-Matsune, Wataru; Taguchi, Masumi; Seto, Kazuko; Kawahara, Ryuji; Kawatsu, Kentaro; Kumeda, Yuko; Kitazato, Miyoshi; Nukina, Masafumi; Misawa, Naoaki; Tsukamoto, Teizo (2007-11-01). "Development of a multiplex PCR assay for identification of Campylobacter coli, Campylobacter fetus, Campylobacter hyointestinalis subsp. hyointestinalis, Campylobacter jejuni, Campylobacter lari and Campylobacter upsaliensis". Journal of Medical Microbiology. 56 (11): 1467–1473. doi: 10.1099/jmm.0.47363-0 . ISSN   0022-2615. PMID   17965346.
  11. ↑ Doyle, KA; Gordon, HMcL (2008-03-10). "Merck Veterinary Manual". Australian Veterinary Journal. 70 (7): 278. doi:10.1111/j.1751-0813.1993.tb08058.x. ISSN   0005-0423.
  12. ↑ Allos, B. M., & Blaser, M. J. (2010). Campylobacter jejuni and related species. In Mandell, Douglass & Bennett’s (Eds.), Principles and practice of infectious diseases, 7th edn (pp. 2793–2802). Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier Churchill Livingstone.
  13. 1 2 3 4 CDC (2014). Campylobacter. Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/foodsafety/diseases/campylobacter/index.html
  14. 1 2 3 Campagnolo, E. R., L. M. Philipp, J. M. Long, and N. L. Hanshaw. "Pet‐associated Campylobacteriosis: A Persisting Public Health Concern." Zoonoses and Public Health 65.3 (2018): 304–11
  15. ↑ Moreno G. S., Griffiths P. L., Connerton I. F., Park R. W. A. Occurrence of campylobacters in small domestic and laboratory animals. J. Appl. Bacteriol. 75 1993 49 54
  16. ↑ Parsons, B. N.; Porter, C. J.; Ryvar, R.; Stavisky, J.; Williams, N. J.; Pinchbeck, G. L.; Birtles, R. J.; Christley, R. M.; German, A. J.; Radford, A. D.; Hart, C. A. (2010-04-01). "Prevalence of Campylobacter spp. in a cross-sectional study of dogs attending veterinary practices in the UK and risk indicators associated with shedding". The Veterinary Journal. 184 (1): 66–70. doi:10.1016/j.tvjl.2009.01.009. ISSN   1090-0233. PMID   19223212.
  17. 1 2 "Campylobacter Infection in Dogs". vca_corporate. Retrieved 2020-10-26.
  18. ↑ Carbonero, A.; Torralbo, A.; Borge, C.; García-Bocanegra, I.; Arenas, A.; Perea, A. (2012-12-01). "Campylobacter spp., C. jejuni and C. upsaliensis infection-associated factors in healthy and ill dogs from clinics in Cordoba, Spain. Screening tests for antimicrobial susceptibility". Comparative Immunology, Microbiology and Infectious Diseases. 35 (6): 505–512. doi:10.1016/j.cimid.2012.05.002. ISSN   0147-9571. PMID   22640550.
  19. ↑ "Symptoms | Campylobacter | CDC". www.cdc.gov. 2019-12-23. Retrieved 2020-10-26.
  20. ↑ "Guillain-Barré Syndrome | Campylobacter | CDC". www.cdc.gov. 2019-12-20. Retrieved 2020-11-28.
  21. ↑ Nachamkin, I.; Allos, B. M.; Ho, T. (July 1998). "Campylobacter species and Guillain-Barré syndrome". Clinical Microbiology Reviews. 11 (3): 555–567. doi:10.1128/CMR.11.3.555. ISSN   0893-8512. PMC   88896 . PMID   9665983.
  22. 1 2 Bourke, Billy; Chan, Voon Loong; Sherman, Philip (1998-07-01). "Campylobacter upsaliensis: Waiting in the Wings". Clinical Microbiology Reviews. 11 (3): 440–449. doi: 10.1128/CMR.11.3.440 . ISSN   0893-8512. PMC   88890 . PMID   9665977. S2CID   22768149.
  23. 1 2 3 4 5 6 "Campylobacter Upsaliensis – an overview | ScienceDirect Topics". www.sciencedirect.com. Retrieved 2020-11-28.
  24. ↑ Sylvester, F. A.; Philpott, D.; Gold, B.; Lastovica, A.; Forstner, J. F. (1996-10-01). "Adherence to lipids and intestinal mucin by a recently recognized human pathogen, Campylobacter upsaliensis". Infection and Immunity. 64 (10): 4060–4066. doi:10.1128/IAI.64.10.4060-4066.1996. ISSN   0019-9567. PMC   174337 . PMID   8926069.
  25. ↑ Fouts, Derrick E; Mongodin, Emmanuel F; Mandrell, Robert E; Miller, William G; Rasko, David A; Ravel, Jacques; Brinkac, Lauren M; DeBoy, Robert T; Parker, Craig T; Daugherty, Sean C; Dodson, Robert J (January 2005). "Major Structural Differences and Novel Potential Virulence Mechanisms from the Genomes of Multiple Campylobacter Species". PLOS Biology. 3 (1): e15. doi: 10.1371/journal.pbio.0030015 . ISSN   1544-9173. PMC   539331 . PMID   15660156.
  26. 1 2 3 "Campylobacter species – Infectious Disease and Antimicrobial Agents". www.antimicrobe.org. Retrieved 2020-11-28.
  27. ↑ Musmanno RA, Russi M, Figura N, et al. Unusual species of campylobacters isolated in the Siena Tuscany area, Italy. The new Microbiologica. 1998 Jan;21(1):15–22.
  28. ↑ Washabau, Robert; Day, Michael (2013), "Acknowledgments", Canine and Feline Gastroenterology, Elsevier, pp. ix, doi:10.1016/b978-1-4160-3661-6.00067-5, ISBN   978-1-4160-3661-6 , retrieved 2020-11-02
  29. 1 2 R.S. Rathore, A.K. Verma, S. Rajagunalan, & K. Dhama. (2013). Trends in campylobacter diagnosis. In R.P Gupta, S.R. Gorg, Vikas Nehra, & Deepika Lather (Eds.). Veterinary diagnostics: Current trends (pp. 321–340). Satish Serial Publishing House.
  30. ↑ Marks, S.L.; Rankin, S.C.; Byrne, B.A.; Weese, J.S. (November 2011). "Enteropathogenic Bacteria in Dogs and Cats: Diagnosis, Epidemiology, Treatment, and Control". Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine. 25 (6): 1195–1208. doi:10.1111/j.1939-1676.2011.00821.x. PMID   22092607.
  31. 1 2 "Diagnosis and Treatment | Campylobacter | CDC". www.cdc.gov. 2019-12-23. Retrieved 2020-11-28.
  32. ↑ Canada, Service (2015-10-23). "Forbidden". aem. Retrieved 2020-11-28.
  33. ↑ Gupta, Amita; Nelson, Jennifer M.; Barrett, Timothy J.; Tauxe, Robert V.; Rossiter, Shannon P.; Friedman, Cindy R.; Joyce, Kevin W.; Smith, Kirk E.; Jones, Timothy F.; Hawkins, Marguerite A.; Shiferaw, Beletshachew (June 2004). "Antimicrobial Resistance among Campylobacter Strains, United States, 1997–2001". Emerging Infectious Diseases. 10 (6): 1102–1109. doi:10.3201/eid1006.030635. ISSN   1080-6040. PMC   3323172 . PMID   15207064.
  34. ↑ Johnson, Tylor J.; Shank, Janette M.; Johnson, Jeremiah G. (2017). "Current and Potential Treatments for Reducing Campylobacter Colonization in Animal Hosts and Disease in Humans". Frontiers in Microbiology. 8: 487. doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2017.00487 . ISSN   1664-302X. PMC   5362611 . PMID   28386253.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.