Clarion-Clipperton Zone

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Major Pacific trenches (1-10) and fracture zones (11-20). The Clipperton Fracture Zone (15) is the nearly horizontal line below the Clarion Fracture Zone (14), and the Middle America Trench is the deep-blue line No. 9. Pacific elevation2.jpg
Major Pacific trenches (1–10) and fracture zones (11–20). The Clipperton Fracture Zone (15) is the nearly horizontal line below the Clarion Fracture Zone (14), and the Middle America Trench is the deep-blue line No. 9.
Location of the Clarion Clipperton Zone Location of the Clarion Clipperton Zone.png
Location of the Clarion Clipperton Zone

The Clarion-Clipperton Zone [1] (CCZ) or Clarion-Clipperton Fracture Zone [2] is an environmental management area of the Pacific Ocean, administered by the International Seabed Authority (ISA). [3] It includes the Clarion Fracture Zone and the Clipperton Fracture Zone, geological submarine fracture zones. Clarion and Clipperton are two of the five major lineations of the northern Pacific floor, and were discovered by the Scripps Institution of Oceanography in 1954. The CCZ is regularly considered for deep-sea mining due to the abundant presence of manganese nodules.

Contents

The CCZ extendes around 4,500 miles (7,240 km) East to West [4] and spans approximately 4,500,000 square kilometres (1,700,000 sq mi). [5] The fractures themselves are unusually mountainous topographical features.

In 2016, investigation of the seafloor in the zone was found to contain an abundance and diversity of life – more than half of the species collected were new to science.

Geography

The fracture can be divided into four parts:

The Nova-Canton Trough is often seen as an extension of the fracture. [7]

The zone contains nodules made up of valuable rare-earth and other minerals. Some of these play an essential role for the energy transition to a low carbon economy. [8] These nodules form around bone fragments or shark teeth. Micronodules then further aggregate and accrete into the clumps targeted for harvesting. [9]

Clipperton Fracture Zone

Clarion-Clipperton Zone
Approximate surface projection on ocean of Clipperton and Clarion fracture zones (violet). Other nearby fracture zones (orange), mid-oceanic ridges (white) and associated features such as probable extension of fracture zones (lighter violet or orange) are also shown. Click to expand map to obtain interactive fracture zone details.'"`UNIQ--ref-00000013-QINU`"'

The Clipperton Fracture Zone is the southernmost of the north east Pacific Ocean lineations. It begins east-northeast of the Line Islands and ends in the Middle America Trench off the coast of Central America, [4] [10] [6] forming a rough line on the same latitude as Kiribati and Clipperton Island, from which it gets its name.

Clarion Fracture Zone

The Clarion Fracture Zone is the next Pacific lineation north of Clipperton FZ. It is bordered on the northeast by Clarion Island, the westernmost of the Revillagigedo Islands, from which it gets its name. Both fracture zones were discovered by the U.S. research vessels "Horizon" and "Spencer F. Baird" in 1954. [11]

Deep sea mining

Polymetallic nodules on the seafloor in the CCZ 2015-04-14 18-20-14 Sonne SO239 157ROV11 Logo original(1).jpg
Polymetallic nodules on the seafloor in the CCZ

The CCZ has been divided into 16 mining claims spanning approximately 1,000,000 square kilometres (390,000 sq mi). A further nine areas, each covering 160,000 square kilometres (62,000 sq mi), have been set aside for conservation. [1] The International Seabed Authority (ISA) estimates that the total amount of nodules in the Clarion Clipperton Zone exceeds 21 billion tons (Bt), containing about 5.95 Bt of manganese, 0.27 Bt of nickel, 0.23 Bt of copper and 0.05 Bt of cobalt. [12] The ISA has issued 19 licences for mining exploration within this area. [13] Exploratory full-scale extraction operations were set to begin in late 2021. [2] ISA aimed to publish the deep sea mining code in July 2023. Commercial license applications were to be accepted for review thereafter. [14]

The so-called two-year rule states that before regulations are passed, a member nation has the authority to notify ISA that it wants to mine. This starts a two-year clock during which the ISA can come up with rules. If it fails to do so, the mining is implicitly approved. Nauru gave notice in July 2021, creating a deadline of July 9, 2023. ISA's next meeting, however, begins a day later, on July 10. [9]

Environmental concerns

Areas of the fracture zone that have been licensed for mining are home to a diversity of deep-sea xenophyophores. A 2017 study found 34 novel species in the area. Xenophyophores are highly sensitive to human disturbances, such that mining may adversely affect them. They play a keystone role in benthic ecosystems such that their removal could amplify ecological consequences. [15] The nodules are considered "critical for food web integrity". [16] The zone hosts corals, sea cucumbers, worms, dumbo octopuses and many other species. [9]

Massachusetts Institute of Technology and TU Delft use their ISA observer status to investigate the potential impact of collecting these minerals and compare it to the environmental and human impact of terrestrial mining. [17] [18] In April 2021, scientists from JPI oceans project carried out in depth studies into mining technology and its possible effect on the seabed. [19]

Mining has the potential for large environmental impacts. The impact of the release of tailings from nodule processing into the water column on pelagic organisms or the detrimental effects they may have on the benthic communities below are unknown. [20]

Along with the xenophyophores, many types of species reside in the Clarion-Clipperton Zone: protists, microbial prokaryotes, and various fauna including megafauna, macrofauna, and meiofauna, each distinguished by size. [21] Due to the lack of historical research in the region—in large part because of the inaccessibility, monetary, and physical cost without modern technology—very little is known about life in the CCZ. The increasing tests in the region have led to the discovery of many new species, suggesting both a high species richness and high species rarity within the CCZ. It seems that polymetallic nodules in the region, the target of much deep-sea mining, are crucial for fostering a high level of biodiversity on the sea floor. Even so, there are many gaps in the current understanding of the ecosystem roles played, life history traits, sensitivities, spatial or temporal variabilities, and resilience of these species. [22]

Much of what is known about the potential environmental impact is a result of a dredging pilot test conducted in 1978. In the years since the tests, the region has been monitored. Many species here are more susceptible to the negative effects of environmental shifts as change at these depths is atypical. Specifically looking at nematodes, it has been determined that there is a lower species richness and lower total biomass in the area where the dredging occurred as compared to the neighboring spaces. Additionally, the composition of species and the frequencies at which they are found change with human interference. The removal of polymetallic nodules, as proposed through deep-sea mining, would decrease suitable habitat as many species of nematodes reside within the upper five centimeters where nodules exist, too. Even those species that do remain will face changes to their habitat conditions as the new top layer of sediment after the removal of the nodules will be significantly denser. The low sedimentation levels and minimal currents show that disruption in the CCZ would have long-lasting effects on the environment; the upturned sediment remains unsettled even decades later. [23]

The vast majority of relevant spheres are still under-researched. What is known makes clear that species in the Clarion-Clipperton Zone would be endangered by many aspects of deep-sea mining activity; they would face threats of being crushed by machinery, dispelled in sediment plumes, smothered by unsettled sediment, the loss of resources and habitat, etc. This does not include the threats posed by noise and light pollution—the effects of which are still largely unknown. [24]

NGOs and governments have called for a moratorium until more is known about potential environmental impacts. [25]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">International Seabed Authority</span> Intergovernmental body to regulate mineral-related activities on the seabed

The International Seabed Authority (ISA) is a Kingston, Jamaica-based intergovernmental body of 167 member states and the European Union established under the 1982 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) and its 1994 Agreement on Implementation. The ISA's dual mission is to authorize and control development of mineral related operations in the international seabed considered the "common heritage of all mankind" and also protect the ecosystem of the seabed, ocean floor and subsoil in "The Area" beyond national jurisdiction. The ISA is to safeguard the international deep sea, the waters below 200 meters or 656 feet, where photosynthesis is hampered by inadequate light. Governing approximately half of the total area of the world's oceans, the ISA is to exercise oversight of activities that might threaten biological diversity and harm the marine environment. The Authority operates as an autonomous international organization with its own Assembly, Council and Secretariat.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Manganese nodule</span> Mineral concretion on the sea bottom made of concentric layers of iron/manganese hydroxides

Polymetallic nodules, also called manganese nodules, are mineral concretions on the sea bottom formed of concentric layers of iron and manganese hydroxides around a core. As nodules can be found in vast quantities, and contain valuable metals, deposits have been identified as a potential economic interest. Depending on their composition and autorial choice, they may also be called ferromanganese or polymetallic nodules. Ferromanganese nodules are mineral concretions composed of silicates and insoluble iron and manganese oxides that form on the ocean seafloor and terrestrial soils. The formation mechanism involves a series of redox oscillations driven by both abiotic and biotic processes. As a byproduct of pedogenesis, the specific composition of a ferromanganese nodule depends on the composition of the surrounding soil. The formation mechanisms and composition of the nodules allow for couplings with biogeochemical cycles beyond iron and manganese. The high relative abundance of nickel, copper, manganese, and other rare metals in nodules has increased interest in their use as a mining resource.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Xenophyophorea</span> Clade of single-celled organisms

Xenophyophorea is a clade of foraminiferans. Members of this class are multinucleate unicellular organisms found on the ocean floor throughout the world's oceans, at depths of 500 to 10,600 metres. They are a kind of foraminiferan that extract minerals from their surroundings and use them to form an exoskeleton known as a test.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Abyssal plain</span> Flat area on the deep ocean floor

An abyssal plain is an underwater plain on the deep ocean floor, usually found at depths between 3,000 and 6,000 metres. Lying generally between the foot of a continental rise and a mid-ocean ridge, abyssal plains cover more than 50% of the Earth's surface. They are among the flattest, smoothest, and least explored regions on Earth. Abyssal plains are key geologic elements of oceanic basins.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Seabed</span> The bottom of the ocean

The seabed is the bottom of the ocean. All floors of the ocean are known as 'seabeds'.

The Komokiacea are a small group of amoeboid protozoa, considered to be foraminifera, though there have been suggestions that they are a separate group, closely related to foraminifera. Komokiacea are rather large organisms, often exceeding 300 micrometers in maximum dimensions. Along with Xenophyophores they dominate the macro- and megabenthic fauna in the deep sea and are commonly referred to as "giants protists".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Deep sea mining</span> Mineral extraction from the ocean floor

Deep sea mining is the extraction of minerals from the ocean floor found at depths of 200 metres (660 ft) to 6,500 metres (21,300 ft). As of 2021, the majority of marine mining efforts were limited to shallow coastal waters, where sand, tin and diamonds are more readily accessible. It is a growing subfield of experimental seabed mining. Three types of deep sea mining have generated interest: polymetallic nodule mining, polymetallic sulfide mining, and cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts. The majority of proposed deep sea mining sites are near polymetallic nodules or active and extinct hydrothermal vents at 1,400 to 3,700 metres depth. The vents create globular or "massive" sulfide deposits that contain valuable metals such as silver, gold, copper, manganese, cobalt, and zinc. The deposits are mined using hydraulic pumps or bucket systems that carry ore to the surface for processing.

Nii Allotey Odunton, a mining engineer from Ghana, was the Secretary-General of the International Seabed Authority, serving back to back four-year terms starting in 2009 and ending in 2017. He was succeeded by Michael W. Lodge.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Antje Boetius</span> German biologist (born 1967)

Antje Boetius is a German marine biologist. She is a professor of geomicrobiology at the Max Planck Institute for Marine Microbiology, University of Bremen. Boetius received the Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Prize in March 2009 for her study of sea bed microorganisms that affect the global climate. She is also the director of Germany's polar research hub, the Alfred Wegener Institute.

Trophomera marionensis is a deep-sea nematode endoparasite of the family Benthimermithidae. They can be found in one of the deepest parts of the ocean, for example, in the hadal zone 7,000 to 10,000 meters below sea level. They exist in relentless darkness under immense water pressure. Marine invertebrates are their definitive hosts. They infest a wide range of invertebrate marine hosts: polychaete, priapulids, crustaceans, and even other nematodes. Death of their host can result if they occupy the entire body, at which point they exit and reproduce.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Diva Amon</span> Marine biologist

Diva Joan Amon is a marine biologist from Trinidad. She is currently a post-doctoral researcher in the Benioff Ocean Initiative at the University of California, Santa Barbara and a 2022 Pew Marine Fellow. Previously, she was a Marie Skłodowska-Curie Actions (MSCA) Research Fellow at the Natural History Museum, London.

Pacificitalea manganoxidans is a Gram-negative, strictly aerobic, manganese-oxidizing and non-motile bacterium from the genus Pacificitalea which has been isolated from sediments of the Pacific Clarion-Clipperton Fracture Zone in China.

Lisa A. Levin is a Distinguished Professor of biological oceanography and marine ecology at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography. She holds the Elizabeth Hamman and Morgan Dene Oliver Chair in Marine Biodiversity and Conservation Science. She studies coastal and deep-sea ecosystems and is a Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science.

Deep Ocean mission is an Indian initiative to undertake the deep ocean exploration focused on India's exclusive economic zones and continental shelf. The program will consist of various crewed and uncrewed submersibles exploring the sea bed. One of the primary aims of the mission is to explore and extract polymetallic nodules, which are composed of minerals like manganese, nickel, cobalt, copper and iron hydroxide. The metals can used in the manufacturing of electronic devices, smartphones, batteries and solar panels.

<i>Occultammina</i> Genus of single-celled organisms

Occultammina is a genus of xenophyophorean foraminifera known from the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. It is notable for being the first known infaunal xenophyophore as well as for being a possible identity for the enigmatic trace fossil Paleodictyon.

<i>Benthodytes</i> Genus of sea cucumbers

Benthodytes is a genus of sea cucumbers in the family Psychropotidae.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Seabed mining</span> Mineral recovery from the bottom of the sea

Seabed mining, also known as Seafloor mining is the recovery of minerals from the seabed by techniques of underwater mining. The concept includes mining at shallow depths on the continental shelf and deep-sea mining at greater depths associated with tectonic activity, hydrothermal vents and the abyssal plains. The increased requirement for minerals and metals used in the technology sector has led to a renewed interest in the mining of seabed mineral resources, including massive polymetallic sulfide deposits around hydrothermal vents, cobalt-rich crusts on the sides of seamounts and fields of manganese nodules on the abyssal plains. Whilst the seabed provides a high concentration of valuable minerals there is an unknown risk of ecological damage on marine species because of a lack of data.

<i>Bolosoma</i> Genus of sponges

Bolosoma is a genus of pedunculated siliceous sponges belonging to the family Euplectellidae. This genus lives in deep-sea environments and provides a habitat for a plethora of other benthic species, giving Bolosoma an incredibly important ecological role in the ecosystems it is a part of.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Deepsea mining in Namibia</span> Deep sea mining in Namibia

Namibia is one of the first countries that issued mining licences regarding deep sea mining. studies that took place in 1970s discovered considerable amounts of phosphate deposits. The significance of seabed mining in Namibia's blue economy is highlighted by the country's status as a "phosphate factory". This is due to the exceptional upwellings of the Benguela Current ecosystem, a transboundary ocean current that spans from South Africa in the south to Angola in the north, passing through Namibia. Those deposits were found in depths between 180 and 300 meters below the sea level. In 2011 the Namibian government issued licences regarding the exploitation of the seabed phosphate resources after the necessary Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs). The action plan that stood out was that of Namibian Marine Phosphates (NMP), a joint venture formed in 2008 between two Australian-based companies, Minemakers and Union Resources and Namibian-based Tungeni Investments. The so-called Sandpiper phosphate mining project outlay was introduced in January 2012 along with environmental reports regarding the effect this operation would have on marine life as well as the fishing industry and water quality changes. Those phosphorite resources are being found in continental shelves and slopes in America, Northern Spain, Morocco, Namibia, and South Africa which show a high potential for exploration.

On the 25th of June 2021, the president of Nauru, Lionel Aingimea, made a formal request to the president of the International Seabed Authority's (ISA) council to complete the adoption of rules, regulations and procedures necessary to facilitate the approval of plans of work for exploitation of deep-sea resources in the Area. This request is based on the "2-year rule", which is part of a provision from the 1994 Agreement relating to the Implementation of Part XI of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. The provision can be found in section 1 of the annex, and it states that the ISA must complete the adoption of rules, regulations and procedures for the approval of the exploitation of deep-sea minerals within 2 years of the request. The ISA's current deadline for drafting new regulation is set in July 2023, although some claim that this is not a "hard" or "fixed" deadline. Due to the issue's complexity, negotiations have thus far failed to come to a concrete agreement. Even if it fails to set clear standards for deep-sea mining activities, the ISA must consider applications for exploitation in waters outside national jurisdictions and provisionally approve contracts after July 2023. Many experts fear that deep-sea mining activities that are not adequately regulated could significantly impact the marine environment, the economies of many nations and the livelihoods of indigenous groups who depend on the oceans for survival.

References

  1. 1 2 "DeepCCZ: Deep-sea Mining Interests in the Clarion-Clipperton Zone". NOAA Office of Ocean Exploration and Research. Archived from the original on 14 February 2019. Retrieved 27 November 2019.
  2. 1 2 "Clarion-Clipperton Fracture Zone | International Seabed Authority". www.isa.org.jm. Archived from the original on 21 March 2018.
  3. ↑ "Marine Regions · Clarion Clipperton Zone (ISA Environmental Management Area)". marineregions.org. Retrieved 22 October 2023.
  4. 1 2 "Clipperton Fracture Zone". Encyclopædia Britannica . Retrieved 17 November 2011.
  5. ↑ "The Clarion-Clipperton Zone". Pew Charitable Trusts. Retrieved 27 November 2019.
  6. 1 2 H. W. Menard and Robert L. Fisher (1958). "Clipperton Fracture in the Northeastern Equatorial Pacific". The Journal of Geology. 66 (3): 239–253. Bibcode:1958JG.....66..239M. doi:10.1086/626502. JSTOR   30080925. S2CID   129268203.
  7. ↑ Contributions – Scripps Institution of Oceanography. Scripps Institution of Oceanography. 1972. p. 69. Retrieved 17 November 2011.
  8. ↑ Church, Clare; Crawford, Alec (2020). "Minerals and the Metals for the Energy Transition: Exploring the Conflict Implications for Mineral-Rich, Fragile States". The Geopolitics of the Global Energy Transition. Lecture Notes in Energy. Vol. 73. Cham: Springer International Publishing. pp. 279–304. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-39066-2_12. ISBN   978-3-030-39066-2. S2CID   226561697 . Retrieved 28 January 2021.
  9. 1 2 3 Imbler, Sabrina; Corum, Jonathan (29 August 2022). "Deep-Sea Riches: Mining a Remote Ecosystem". The New York Times. ISSN   0362-4331 . Retrieved 12 April 2023.
  10. ↑ Keating, Barbara H. (1987). Seamounts, islands, and atolls. American Geophysical Union. p. 156. ISBN   978-0-87590-068-1 . Retrieved 17 November 2011.[ permanent dead link ]
  11. ↑ "Marine Regions · Clarion Fracture Zone (Fracture Zone)". marineregions.org. Retrieved 22 October 2023.
  12. ↑ International Seabed Authority (2010). A Geological Model of Polymetallic Nodule Deposits in the Clarion-Clipperton Fracture Zone and Prospector's Guide for Polymetallic Nodule Deposits in the Clarion Clipperton Fracture Zone. Technical Study: No. 6. ISBN   978-976-95268-2-2.
  13. ↑ "Exploration Contracts | International Seabed Authority". www.isa.org.jm. Retrieved 30 November 2021.
  14. ↑ Reid, Helen (29 October 2021). "New deep-sea mining rules set to miss 2023 deadline, Latam and Caribbean countries say". Reuters. Retrieved 7 December 2021.
  15. ↑ Gooday, Andrew J.; Holzmann, Maria; Caulle, Clémence; Goineau, Aurélie; Kamenskaya, Olga; Weber, Alexandra A.-T.; Pawlowski, Jan (1 March 2017). "Giant protists (xenophyophores, Foraminifera) are exceptionally diverse in parts of the abyssal eastern Pacific licensed for polymetallic nodule exploration". Biological Conservation. 207: 106–116. doi: 10.1016/j.biocon.2017.01.006 . ISSN   0006-3207.
  16. ↑ Stratmann, Tanja; Soetaert, Karline; Kersken, Daniel; van Oevelen, Dick (10 June 2021). "Polymetallic nodules are essential for food-web integrity of a prospective deep-seabed mining area in Pacific abyssal plains". Scientific Reports. 11 (1): 12238. doi:10.1038/s41598-021-91703-4. ISSN   2045-2322. PMC   8192577 . PMID   34112864.
  17. ↑ Gallagher, Mary Beth. "Understanding the impact of deep-sea mining". MIT News | Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Retrieved 28 January 2021.
  18. ↑ 9 European partners work together to help the maturation of a hydraulic nodule collector, while minimizing its environmental footprint, blueharvesting-project.eu
  19. ↑ "Assessing the Impacts of Nodule Mining on the Deep-Sea Environment". www.jpi-oceans.eu. Retrieved 7 December 2021.
  20. ↑ Schriever, G. (4 May 2009). "SS Ocean Mining: Development of Environmental Research related to future Deep Sea Mining - Are Concerns justified and what should be done?". All Days. OTC. doi:10.4043/19935-ms.
  21. ↑ NORI D Collector Test EIS - FINAL - Chapter 6. (2022). In The Metals Company.
  22. ↑ Amon, D.; Gollner, S.; Morato, T.; Smith, C.; Chen, C.; Christiansen, S., et al. (2022). Assessment of scientific gaps related to the effective environmental management of deep-seabed mining. UC San Diego. Report #: ARTN 105006. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2022.105006 Retrieved from https://escholarship.org/uc/item/0w48f05q
  23. ↑ Miljutin, Dmitry & Miljutina, Maria & Martinez Arbizu, Pedro & Galéron, Joëlle. (2011). Deep-sea nematode assemblage has not recovered 26 years after experimental mining of polymetallic nodules (Clarion-Clipperton Fracture Zone, Tropical Eastern Pacific). Deep Sea Research Part I: Oceanographic Research Papers. 58. 10.1016/j.dsr.2011.06.003.
  24. ↑ Miljutin, Dmitry & Miljutina, Maria & Martinez Arbizu, Pedro & Galéron, Joëlle. (2011). Deep-sea nematode assemblage has not recovered 26 years after experimental mining of polymetallic nodules (Clarion-Clipperton Fracture Zone, Tropical Eastern Pacific). Deep Sea Research Part I: Oceanographic Research Papers. 58. 10.1016/j.dsr.2011.06.003.
  25. ↑ "One step closer to a global moratorium on deep-sea mining". Fauna & Flora International. 15 September 2021. Retrieved 7 December 2021.


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