Conservation grazing

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Highland Cattle on the Grazing Marsh at London Wetland Centre Conservation Grazing Highland Cattle on the Wetland Centre Grazing Marsh.jpg
Highland Cattle on the Grazing Marsh at London Wetland Centre

Conservation grazing or targeted grazing [1] is the use of semi-feral or domesticated grazing livestock to maintain and increase the biodiversity of natural or semi-natural grasslands, heathlands, wood pasture, wetlands and many other habitats. [2] [3] Conservation grazing is generally less intensive than practices such as prescribed burning, [3] but still needs to be managed to ensure that overgrazing does not occur. The practice has proven to be beneficial in moderation in restoring and maintaining grassland and heathland ecosystems. Conservation or monitored grazing has been implemented into regenerative agriculture programs to restore soil and overall ecosystem health of current working landscapes. The optimal level of grazing and grazing animal will depend on the goal of conservation. Different levels of grazing, alongside other conservation practices, can be used to induce desired results. [4]

Contents

History

Historically grasslands, grazing animals, herbivores, were a crucial part of the ecosystem ecosystems. When grazers are removed, previously grazed lands may show a decline in both the density and the diversity of the vegetation loss of biodiversity, and wildfires. [5] The history of the land may help ecologists and conservationists determine the best approach to a conservation project. [6]

Historic threats to grasslands began with land conversion to crop fields and working landscapes. As of 2017, approximately 20% of native grazing lands worldwide have been transformed into crops resulting in a 60% loss of soil carbon. [7] This shift allowed for improper land management techniques and more recently to the spread of woody plants due to a lack of management and to climate change. [8] Overgrazing and trampling of soil and grasslands from human-introduced livestock has led to reduction in vegetation cover, increased soil erosion from overexposure, [9] and in more arid climate, desertification that is intensified by drought. [10] Now, grazing lands are the most degraded land use worldwide. [5]

Conservation Grazing in Practice

'Ecopaturage' on a Historical Monument, the Citadel of Lille, by Soay sheep in a closed area. Their coats, hoofs and manure help to disperse plant seeds. MoutonSoaySoaySheepUrbanGrazing2012LilleCitadelleLamiotF 05.JPG
'Ecopâturage' on a Historical Monument, the Citadel of Lille, by Soay sheep in a closed area. Their coats, hoofs and manure help to disperse plant seeds.
Urban ecopastoralism with sheep and goats in an urban meadow of the "Bois de la Citadelle" in Lille Ecopaturage urbain Lille moutons chevres landscape grazing Mai 2019c.jpg 15.jpg
Urban ecopastoralism with sheep and goats in an urban meadow of the "Bois de la Citadelle" in Lille
Conservation grazing Longhorn Cattle to manage the national nature reserve at Ruislip Lido Conservation Grazing Longhorn Cattle to manage NNR at Ruislip Lido.jpg
Conservation grazing Longhorn Cattle to manage the national nature reserve at Ruislip Lido

Intensive grazing maintains an area as a habitat dominated by grasses and small shrubs, largely preventing ecological succession to forest. [12] Extensive grazing also treats habitats dominated by grasses and small shrubs but does not prevent succession to forest, it only slows it down. Conservation grazing is usually done with extensive grazing because of the ecological disadvantages of intensive grazing.

Conservation grazing needs to be monitored closely. Overgrazing may cause erosion, habitat destruction, soil compaction, or reduced biodiversity (species richness). [13] Rambo and Faeth found that the use of vertebrates for grazing of an area increased the species richness of plants by decreasing the abundance of dominant species and increasing the richness of rarer species. This may lead to a more open forest canopy and more room for other plant species to emerge. [14]

Regenerative Agriculture and Monitored Grazing

Regenerative grazing management aims to revert back to natural, historic grazing dynamics between the grazing animals, land, and other ecological processes contributing to the targeted ecosystem. [15] By managing the level of grazing, livestock ranchers can take into account soil health, manage erosion, reduce fire risk, and contribute to an overall healthier ecosystem and allow for grasses to regrow. To lessen the effects of climate change within the agriculture system and encourage resilient farming, soil carbon sequestering, nutrient recycling, and promoting biodiversity is crucial. [16] This is done by rotating livestock herds through multiple padlocks after a certain amount of time. Monitored grazing plans must be flexible to account for: changes to shape and size of padlock, livestock density, duration, intensity of plant loss, frequency of grazing, and time of year. [15] It is unfeasible for all land to be returned to its historic, natural land use through complete removal of agriculture. Therefore, regenerative agriculture is a technique to restore overgrazed land while continuing to farm.

Variability in Grazing Species

The outcome of restoration is dependent on the grazing species. For example, wapiti and horses have a similar grazing frequency to cattle but tend to graze a larger surface area – producing a smaller effect on the land as opposed to cattle. [17] Cattle have been found to be more useful in the restoration of pastures with low species richness, whereas sheep were found useful for the re-establishment of neglected fields. [18] The targeted restoration area will determine the species of grazer ideal for conservation grazing. Dumont et al. [19] found in the use of varied breeds of steers that "traditional breeds appeared slightly less selective than commercial breeds", but did not make a significant difference in biodiversity. In this particular study biodiversity was maintained by the same amount by both breed types.

Effects on Ecosystem

Effects on native and non-native plant species

Conservation grazing is a tool used for conserving biodiversity. However, one danger in grazing is the potential for increased invasive species alongside the native biodiversity. A study by Loeser et al. showed that areas of high intensity grazing and grazer removal increased the biomass of nonnative introduced species. Both showed that an intermediate approach is the best method. The nonnatives did demonstrate that they were not as well adapted to the disturbances, such as drought. This indicated that implementing controlled grazing methods would decrease the abundance of nonnatives in those plots that had not been properly managed. [20]

Effects of grazing can also depend on the individual plant species and its response to grazing. Plants that are adapted to extensive grazing (such as that done by cattle) will respond quicker and more effectively to grazing than native species that have not had to cope with intense grazing pressure in the past. An experiment done by Kimball and Schiffman showed that grazing increased the cover of some native species but did not decrease the cover of nonnative species. The species diversity of the native plants was able to respond to the grazing and increase diversity. The community would become denser than originally with the increased biodiversity. (However, this may have been simply variance in plots due to the fact that the native and nonnative compositions were of different species between the grazed and ungrazed plots.) [17]

Effects on animals

Insects and butterflies

Degree of grazing has a significant effect on the species richness and abundance of insects in grasslands. Land management in the form of grazing tends to decrease diversity with increased intensity. Kruess and Tscharntke attribute this difference to the increased height of grasses in the ungrazed areas. The study showed that the abundance and diversity of insects (such as butterfly adults, trap-nesting bees and wasps) were increased by increased grass height. However, other insects such as grasshoppers responded better to heterogeneity of the vegetation. [21]

Vertebrates

Grazing can have varied effects on vertebrates. Kuhnert et al. observed that different bird species react in different ways to changes in grazing intensity. [22] Grazing has also been thought to decrease the abundance of vertebrates, such as the prairie dog and the desert tortoise. However, Kazmaier et al. found that moderate grazing by cattle had no effect on the Texas tortoise. [13]

Rabbits have been widely discussed due to their influences on land composition. Bell and Watson found that rabbits show grazing preference for different plant species. [23] This preference can alter the composition of a plant community. [24] In some cases, if the preference is for a non-native, invasive plant, rabbit grazing may benefit the community by reducing non-native abundance and creating room for the native plant species to fill. [25] When rabbits graze in moderation they can create a more complex ecosystem, by creating more variable environments that will allow for more predator-competitor relationships between the various organisms. [24] However, besides the effect on wild vegetation, rabbits destroy crops, compete with other herbivores, and can result in extreme ecological damage. Competition can be direct or indirect. The rabbits may specifically eat the competitions target food or it may inhibit the growth of grasses that other species eat. For example, rabbit grazing in the Netherlands inhibits tall grasses from becoming dominant. This in turn enhances the suitability of the pasture for brent goose. However, they may benefit predators that do better in open areas, because the rabbits reduce the amount of vegetation making it easier for those predators to spot their prey. [24]

Finally, grazing has demonstrated use in clearing dry brush to reduce the fire hazard of drought-stricken areas. [26]

Effect on Ephemeral Wetlands

Ephemeral wetlands degradation and loss of biodiversity had, at one point in time, been blamed on mismanaged grazing of both native and non-native ungulates and other grazers. A study done by Jaymee Marty of The Nature Conservancy examined the effects on the vernal pools formed in California when grazers were removed. [27] The results of the short study showed that areas where grazers were removed had a lower diversity of native grasses, invertebrates and vertebrates in the pools, with an increase in non-native grass abundance and distribution in the area. The study also demonstrated reduced reproduction success of individual species in the area, such as the western spadefoot toad and California tiger salamander. Marty argues that this decrease is due to ecosystems adapting to historical changes in grazers and the effects they have. In other words, the historic ecosystem, theoretically, would have responded positively to the removal of cattle grazing, however, the system has adapted to the European introduced species and now may require them for maintained diversity. [27] In another study performed by Pyke and Marty, measurements showed that on average, vernal ponds on grazed land pooled longer than ungrazed areas and soil was more resistant to water absorption in the grazed areas. [28]

Targeted grazing

A recent synonym or near-synonym for conservation grazing is "targeted grazing", a term introduced in a 2006 handbook [1] in distinction to prescribed grazing, which the USDA National Resource Conservation Service was using to describe all managed grazing. [1] [29] [30] Targeted grazing is often used in combination with other techniques such as burning, herbicide applications or land clearing. Targeted grazing can rival traditional herbicide and mechanical control methods for invasive plants from invasive forb to juniper trees, and has been used to reduce fine fuels in fire prone areas. [31] [32] [33]

Principles

The most important skill for developing a targeted grazing program is patience and commitment. However, understanding livestock and plant responses to grazing are critical in developing a targeted grazing program. The program should have a clear statement of the kind of animal, timing and rate of grazing necessary to suppress troublesome plants and maintain a healthy landscape. The grazing application should 1) cause significant damage to the target plants 2) limit damage to desired vegetation and 3) be integrated with other control strategies. First, to cause significant damage to targeted plants requires understanding when the target plant is most susceptible to grazing damage and when they are most palatable to livestock. Target plant palatability depends on the grazing animals inherited and developed plant preferences (i.e. the shape of sheep and goat's mouths make them well suited for eating broad leaf weeds). Goats are also well designed for eating shrubs. [34] [35] Second, target plants often exist in a plant community with many desirable plants. The challenge is to select the correct animal, grazing time and grazing intensity to maximize the impact on the target plant while reducing it on the associated plant community. Finally, management objectives, target plant species, weather, topography, plant physiology, and associated plant communities are among the many variables that can determine treatment type and duration. Well-developed targeted grazing objectives and an adaptive management plan that takes into account other control strategies need to be in place.

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Overgrazing</span> When plants are grazed for extended periods without sufficient recovery time

Overgrazing occurs when plants are exposed to intensive grazing for extended periods of time, or without sufficient recovery periods. It can be caused by either livestock in poorly managed agricultural applications, game reserves, or nature reserves. It can also be caused by immobile, travel restricted populations of native or non-native wild animals.

Taunton National Park is situated near the town of Dingo approximately 135 km inland from Rockhampton in eastern Central Queensland, Australia. The park encompasses an area of 11,626 ha within the Northern Brigalow Belt bioregion of Queensland; a region widely recognised to contain considerable biodiversity.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Grassland</span> Area with vegetation dominated by grasses

A grassland is an area where the vegetation is dominated by grasses (Poaceae). However, sedge (Cyperaceae) and rush (Juncaceae) can also be found along with variable proportions of legumes, like clover, and other herbs. Grasslands occur naturally on all continents except Antarctica and are found in most ecoregions of the Earth. Furthermore, grasslands are one of the largest biomes on Earth and dominate the landscape worldwide. There are different types of grasslands: natural grasslands, semi-natural grasslands, and agricultural grasslands. They cover 31–69% of the Earth's land area.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Savanna</span> Mixed woodland-grassland ecosystem

A savanna or savannah is a mixed woodland-grassland ecosystem characterised by the trees being sufficiently widely spaced so that the canopy does not close. The open canopy allows sufficient light to reach the ground to support an unbroken herbaceous layer consisting primarily of grasses. According to Britannica, there exists four savanna forms; savanna woodland where trees and shrubs form a light canopy, tree savanna with scattered trees and shrubs, shrub savanna with distributed shrubs, and grass savanna where trees and shrubs are mostly nonexistent.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pasture</span> Land used for grazing

Pasture is land used for grazing.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Meadow</span> Open habitat vegetated primarily by non-woody plants

A meadow is an open habitat or field, vegetated by grasses, herbs, and other non-woody plants. Trees or shrubs may sparsely populate meadows, as long as these areas maintain an open character. Meadows can occur naturally under favourable conditions, but are often artificially created from cleared shrub or woodland for the production of hay, fodder, or livestock. Meadow habitats, as a group, are characterized as "semi-natural grasslands", meaning that they are largely composed of species native to the region, with only limited human intervention.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Grazing</span> Feeding livestock on forage

In agriculture, grazing is a method of animal husbandry whereby domestic livestock are allowed outdoors to free range and consume wild vegetations in order to convert the otherwise indigestible cellulose within grass and other forages into meat, milk, wool and other animal products, often on land that is unsuitable for arable farming.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rangeland</span> Biomes which can be grazed by animals or livestock (grasslands, woodlands, prairies, etc)

Rangelands are grasslands, shrublands, woodlands, wetlands, and deserts that are grazed by domestic livestock or wild animals. Types of rangelands include tallgrass and shortgrass prairies, desert grasslands and shrublands, woodlands, savannas, chaparrals, steppes, and tundras. Rangelands do not include forests lacking grazable understory vegetation, barren desert, farmland, or land covered by solid rock, concrete and/or glaciers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fire ecology</span> Study of fire in ecosystems

Fire ecology is a scientific discipline concerned with the effects of fire on natural ecosystems. Many ecosystems, particularly prairie, savanna, chaparral and coniferous forests, have evolved with fire as an essential contributor to habitat vitality and renewal. Many plant species in fire-affected environments use fire to germinate, establish, or to reproduce. Wildfire suppression not only endangers these species, but also the animals that depend upon them.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">California coastal prairie</span> Plant community in California

California coastal prairie, also known as northern coastal grassland, is a grassland plant community of California and Oregon in the temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands biome. This ecosystem is found along the Pacific Coast, from as far south as Los Angeles in Southern California to southern Oregon. It typically stretches as far inland as 100 km, and occurs at altitudes of 350 m or lower.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Black-tailed prairie dog</span> Species of rodent

The black-tailed prairie dog is a rodent of the family Sciuridae found in the Great Plains of North America from about the United States–Canada border to the United States–Mexico border. Unlike some other prairie dogs, these animals do not truly hibernate. The black-tailed prairie dog can be seen above ground in midwinter. A black-tailed prairie dog town in Texas was reported to cover 25,000 sq mi (64,000 km2) and included 400,000,000 individuals. Prior to habitat destruction, the species may have been the most abundant prairie dog in central North America. It was one of two prairie dogs described by the Lewis and Clark Expedition in the journals and diaries of their expedition.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Prairie restoration</span> Conservation efforts focused on prairie lands

Prairie restoration is a conservation effort to restore prairie lands that were destroyed due to industrial, agricultural, commercial, or residential development. The primary aim is to return areas and ecosystems to their previous state before their depletion.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Shortgrass prairie</span> Ecosystem located on the North American Great Plains

The shortgrass prairie is an ecosystem located in the Great Plains of North America. The two most dominant grasses in the shortgrass prairie are blue grama and buffalograss, the two less dominant grasses in the prairie are greasegrass and sideoats grama. The prairie was formerly maintained by grazing pressure of American bison, which is the keystone species. Due to its semiarid climate, the shortgrass prairie receives on average less precipitation than that of the tall and mixed grass prairies to the east.

Scottsdale Reserve is a 1,328-hectare (3,280-acre) nature reserve on the Murrumbidgee River in south-central New South Wales, Australia. It is 79 kilometres (49 mi) south of Canberra, and 4 kilometres (2.5 mi) north of Bredbo. It is owned and managed by Bush Heritage Australia (BHA), which purchased it in 2006. The purchase was supportive of projects aiming to connect existing fragmented remnant habitat such as K2C. Since the 1870s up until 2006, the land was used for agriculture – primarily sheep grazing with some minor cropping. A significant component of the Reserve has been cleared of native vegetation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Alpine steppe</span> High altitude natural alpine grassland

The Alpine-steppe is a high altitude natural alpine grassland, which is a part of the Montane grasslands and shrublands biome.

Grazing pressure is defined as the number of grazing animals of a specified class per unit weight of herbage. It is well established in general usage. 

Island ecology is the study of island organisms and their interactions with each other and the environment. Islands account for nearly 1/6 of earth’s total land area, yet the ecology of island ecosystems is vastly different from that of mainland communities. Their isolation and high availability of empty niches lead to increased speciation. As a result, island ecosystems comprise 30% of the world’s biodiversity hotspots, 50% of marine tropical diversity, and some of the most unusual and rare species. Many species still remain unknown.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dry grassland</span>

The key characteristic of dry grasslands is that they have low-growing plants, causing the area to be quite open. They also have a mottled structure, which leads to a biome with sunny or semi-shaded areas. On top of that, their soil is relatively dry and nutrient-poor. There are, however, types of grasslands with a higher humus and nutrient content. The soil of these areas overlie acid rocks or deposits such as sands and gravels. Dry grasslands belong to different zones such as: the natural zonal or azonal/extrazonal vegetation and the semi-natural vegetation. Overall, there are 13 classes that fall under dry grasslands.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Woody plant encroachment</span> Vegetation cover change

Woody plant encroachment is a natural phenomenon characterised by the increase in density of woody plants, bushes and shrubs, at the expense of the herbaceous layer, grasses and forbs. It predominantly occurs in grasslands, savannas and woodlands and can cause regime shifts from open grasslands and savannas to closed woodlands. The term bush encroachment refers to the expansion of native plants and not the spread of alien invasive species. It is thus defined by plant density, not species. Woody encroachment is often considered interpreted as a symptom of land degradation. The phenomenon is observed across different ecosystems and with different characteristics and intensities globally.

References

  1. 1 2 3 Launchbaugh, Karen (2006). Targeted Grazing: A natural approach to vegetation management and landscape enhancement. National Sheep Industry Improvement Center in Cooperation with the American Sheep Industry Association.
  2. ↑ Conservation Grazing Peninsula Open Space Trust, California, US, 2009. (cited 2009 Mar 11)
  3. 1 2 What is Conservation Grazing? Archived 2020-04-09 at the Wayback Machine Grazing Advice Partnership, UK, 2009.
  4. ↑ "Free-Range Landscaping Rent-a-goat.com and Others Bring in Herds to Trim the Yard, Get Rid of Weeds". The Wall Street Journal .
  5. 1 2 Papanastasis, Vasilios P. (24 July 2009). "Restoration of Degraded Grazing Lands through Grazing Management: Can It Work?". Restoration Ecology. 17 (4): 441–445. Bibcode:2009ResEc..17..441P. doi:10.1111/j.1526-100X.2009.00567.x. ISSN   1061-2971.
  6. ↑ History distribution and challenges to bison recovery in the northern Chihuahuan desert Rurik, L., G. Ceballos, C. Curtin, P. J. P. Gogan, J. Pacheco, and J. Truett. Conservation Biology, 2007, 21(6): 1487-1494.
  7. ↑ Conant, Richard T.; Cerri, Carlos E. P.; Osborne, Brooke B.; Paustian, Keith (7 March 2017). "Grassland management impacts on soil carbon stocks: a new synthesis". Ecological Applications. 27 (2): 662–668. Bibcode:2017EcoAp..27..662C. doi:10.1002/eap.1473. ISSN   1051-0761. PMID   27875004.
  8. ↑ An ecosystem in transition: causes and consequences of the conversion of Mesic grassland to shrubland Briggs, J. M., A. K. Knapp, J. L. Heisler, J. M. Blair, M. S. Lett, G. A. Hoch and J. K. McCarron. Bioscience, 2005, 55(3): 243-254.
  9. ↑ Thornes, John B. (31 January 2007). "Modelling Soil Erosion by Grazing: Recent Developments and New Approaches". Geographical Research. 45 (1): 13–26. Bibcode:2007GeoRs..45...13T. doi:10.1111/j.1745-5871.2007.00426.x. ISSN   1745-5863.
  10. ↑ Mabbutt, Jack A. (1984). "A New Global Assessment of the Status and Trends of Desertification". Environmental Conservation. 11 (2): 103–113. Bibcode:1984EnvCo..11..103M. doi:10.1017/S0376892900013795. ISSN   0376-8929.
  11. ↑ Frédérick Lecluyse (2019) article intitulé Lille À la Citadelle, le bêlement des moutons remplace le bruit des tondeuses , publié par la Voix du Nord | 07/05/2019
  12. ↑ Influence of cattle grazing practices on forest understory structure in North-eastern New South Wales Tasker, E M and R A Bradstock. Austral Ecology, 2006, 31(4): 490-502.
  13. 1 2 Effects of Grazing on the demography and growth of the Texas tortoise Kazmaier, R.T., E.C. Hellgren, D.C. Ruthven III, and D.K. Synatzske. Conservation Biology, 2002, 15(4): 1091-1101.
  14. ↑ Effect of Vertebrate Grazing on Plant and Insect Community Structure Rambo, J.L and S.H. Faeth. Conservation Biology, 2001, 13(5): 1047-1054.
  15. 1 2 Morris, Craig D. (2021). "How Biodiversity-Friendly Is Regenerative Grazing?". Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution. 9. doi: 10.3389/fevo.2021.816374 . ISSN   2296-701X.
  16. ↑ Sherwood, Stephen; Uphoff, Norman (2000-08-01). "Soil health: research, practice and policy for a more regenerative agriculture". Applied Soil Ecology. Special issue: Managing the Biotic component of Soil Quality. 15 (1): 85–97. Bibcode:2000AppSE..15...85S. doi:10.1016/S0929-1393(00)00074-3. ISSN   0929-1393.
  17. 1 2 Differing Effects of Cattle Grazing on Native and Alien Plants Kimball, S. and P.M Schiffman. Conservation Biology, 2003, 17(6): 1681-1693.
  18. ↑ Effects of livestock breed and grazing intensity on grazing systems: 3. Diversity of Vegetation Scimone, M., A.J. Rook, J.D. Gavel, and N. Sahin. Grass and Forage Science, 2007, 62(2): 172-184.
  19. ↑ Effects of livestock breed and grazing intensity on biodiversity and production in grazing systems and diet selection: 2. Diet systems [ dead link ]Dumont, B., A.J. Rook, Ch. Coran, and K.U. Rover. Grass and Forage Science, 2007, 62(2): 159-171.
  20. ↑ Impact of grazing intensity during Drought in an Arizona Grassland Loeser, M R R, T D Sisk, and T E Creus. Conservation Biology, 2006, 21(1): 87-97.
  21. ↑ Grazing Intensity and the Diversity of Grasshoppers, Butterflies, Trap-Nesting Bees and Wasps Kruess, A. and T. Tscharntke. Conservation Biology, 2002, 16(6): 1570-1580.
  22. ↑ Assessing the Impacts of grazing levels on bird density in woodland habitat: a Bayesian approach using expert opinion Kuhnert, P.M, T.G. Martin, K. Mengersen, and H.P Possingham. Environmetrics, 2005, 16(7): 717-747.
  23. ↑ Preferential grazing of five varieties of spring barley by wild rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) Bell, A.C. and S. Watson. Annals of Applied Biology, 2008, 122(3): 637-641.
  24. 1 2 3 Key role of European rabbits in the conservation of the Western Mediterranean Basin Hotspot Delibes-Mateos, M., M. Delibes, P. Ferreras, and R. Villafuerte. Conservation Biology, 2008, 22(5): 1106-1117.
  25. ↑ The Effects of herbivory and competition on the invasive alien plant Senecio inaequidens (asteraceae) Scherber, C., M.J. Crawley and S. Povembshi. Diversity and Distributions, 2003, 9(6): 415-426.
  26. ↑ "American Pastoral". Brown Alumni Monthly. Sep–Oct 2012.
  27. 1 2 Effects of Cattle Grazing on Diversity in Ephemeral Wetlands Marty, J.T. Conservation Biology, 2005, 19(5): 1626-1632.
  28. ↑ Cattle grazing Mediates Climate change impacts on Ephemeral Wetlands Pyke, C.R. and J. Marty. Conservation Biology, 2005, 19(5): 1619-1625.
  29. ↑ "What is Conservation Grazing?". Grazing Animals Project. Archived from the original on 9 April 2020. Retrieved 17 February 2015.
  30. ↑ Larsen, Dana (November 5, 2009). "PROCEDURES USING TARGETED GRAZING – INVASIVE PLANT MANAGEMENT". Usda-NRCS. Range and Pasture Technical Note #18.
  31. ↑ Longwell, T. "Weed control and fire hazard reduction in forest ecosystems with sheep grazing".
  32. ↑ Gordon, K (May 2007). "Use targeted grazing to take aim at invasive weeds". Beef Magazine.
  33. ↑ Taylor, C. A. "Improving the efficacy of goating for biological juniper management". Texas A&M AgriLife.
  34. ↑ Luginbuhl, J. M. "Use of Goats as Biological Agents for the Control of Unwanted Vegetation".
  35. ↑ Launchbaugh, K (2006). Targeted Grazing: A natural approach to vegetation management and landscape enhancement. National Sheep Industry Improvement Center in Cooperation with the American Sheep Industry Association.
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