Corallivore

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Yellow longnose butterflyfish browsing on coral polyps Forcipiger flavissimus Yellow Longnose Butterflyfish Papua New Guinea by Nick Hobgood.jpg
Yellow longnose butterflyfish browsing on coral polyps

A corallivore is an animal that feeds on coral. Corallivores are an important group of reef organism because they can influence coral abundance, distribution, and community structure. Corallivores feed on coral using a variety of unique adaptations and strategies. Known corallivores include certain mollusks, annelids, fish, crustaceans, flatworms and echinoderms. The first recorded evidence of corallivory was presented by Charles Darwin in 1842 during his voyage on HMS Beagle in which he found coral in the stomach of two Scarus parrotfish.

Contents

History

While visiting the Cocos (Keeling) Islands in 1842, Charles Darwin was told by an Englishman living on the islands that there were large shoals of parrotfish that subsisted entirely on coral. [1] Darwin dissected several parrotfish and found pieces of coral and finely ground calcareous material in their stomach. [1] [2] This led Darwin to correctly theorize that some species of parrotfish consume coral and contribute sediment to the environment by passing finely ground particles from coral skeletons. [1]

In 1952, the first descriptions of organisms actively consuming coral were written by Jacques Cousteau and published in National Geographic . [2] [3] During his trip to the Red Sea aboard RV Calypso, Cousteau swam with a pair of green humphead parrotfish and watched them take regular bites and leaving white scars on the coral around them. [3] Like Darwin, Cousteau also noticed the sediment particles that were produced in the parrotfishs' waste and settled to the seafloor. [3] Cousteau noted the leisurely speed with which the parrotfish consumed the coral and remarked that they appeared "unhurried" and like "sea cows, browsing on stone pastures." [3]

The term "corallivore" comes from the Latin word corallum for coral and -vora for to eat or devour. [4] [ failed verification ]

Types

Approximately one-third of known corallivores are obligate corallivores, while the remaining three-fourths are facultative corallivores. [5] Obligate corallivory is defined as having a diet which is at least 80% coral. [5] Obligate corallivores are present in all tropical oceans, except the Caribbean. [5] Facultative corallivores are defined as organisms that regularly consume coral without it comprising a large percentage of their diet. [5]

It is thought that some facultative corallivores, such as some damselfish, eat coral to promote algal growth. Many facultative corallivores also graze on algae, which competes with coral for space and resources. By grazing coral, it may provide better conditions for algal growth. [2] Aggressive grazing may keep the algal community in a state of accelerated growth, effectively preventing the transition to a slower growing community. [6]

Feeding strategies

Trapezia crab on Pocillopora Trapezia flavopunctata & Pocillopora.JPG
Trapezia crab on Pocillopora

Organisms display different strategies for consuming coral. The majority of corallivores feed on stony coral, however, a few species feed on soft coral. [5] There are no known obligate soft coral feeder; soft coral is estimated to be a small percentage of the diet of soft coral feeders. [5] The most common genera of coral consumed are Acropora , Pocillopora , Montipora , and Porites . [2] [7] Only 18 out of the 111 described coral genera are known to be consumed by corallivores. [2]

Mucus feeders

Mucus feeders feed exclusively on coral mucus. [2] Coral regularly slough off mucus into the surrounding water, so it is thought that mucus feeding causes no harm to the coral. [5] However, it has been shown to disrupt microbial communities living on the coral. [2] Many mucus feeders have shown a preference towards damaged corals, which typically produce more mucus than undamaged corals. [5]

Browsers

Browsers eat coral tissue without damaging the coral's calcium carbonate skeleton. [2] The majority of corallivore species are browsers. [5]

Scrapers

Scrapers consume live coral tissue and small portions of the coral's calcium carbonate skeleton. [2]

Excavators

Excavators consume live coral tissue and large portions of the coral's calcium carbonate skeleton. [2] Excavators can be further broken down to "spot biters" and "focused biters". Spot biters take bites that are scattered over a colony's surface, while focused biters bite repeatedly in the same area. [2] At one time, focused biting was thought to be a display of territoriality in parrotfish, but was later determined to be for food. [2] Out of all of the kinds of corallivores, excavators are thought to have the biggest impact on coral reef communities due to the large amount of coral and skeleton consumed. [5] Additionally, studies suggest that the damage from excavating takes significantly longer to heal than other types of corallivory. [5]

Bioeroders

Bioeroders consume dead coral substrate. [2] Bioeroders are thought to help reshape coral reef landscapes by eroding dead corals. [2]

In nature

Parrotfish eating coral in the Red Sea Eilat Scuba Parrotfish.JPG
Parrotfish eating coral in the Red Sea

Corallivory is relatively rare in nature; less than 3% of known fish species, four families of crustaceans, four families of gastropods, and a few echinoderm genera have been identified as corallivores. [8] Corallivores are present in all tropical reef regions. The region with the highest proportion of corallivorous organisms is the tropical eastern Pacific Ocean. [9]

Fish

Butterflyfish constitute a large percentage of the known corallivores; of the 128 known corallivorous fish species, 69 are butterflyfish species. [5] Additionally, 50% of butterflyfish species are corallivores, making corallivory their most common feeding method. [5] [6] Corallivorous fish come from 11 different families. [5] 39 species are obligate corallivores. [5]

Butterflyfish have a wide range of adaptations that facilitate coral consumption. Some butterflyfish have long mouth that they use like forceps to pluck off individual coral polyps and some use their teeth to scrape off coral tissue. [2] Butterflyfish that consume coral have longer intestines than fish that do not consume coral, suggesting that corallivores need more time to process the complex molecules of the coral. [10]

The golden pufferfish is distributed widely across the tropical oceans, however, is considered a particularly significant corallivore, specifically in the tropical Eastern Pacific. [11] The golden pufferfish uses its beak-like dental plate to feed on the tips of branching corals at an estimated pace of 16 to 20 grams (0.56 to 0.71 oz) of calcium carbonate per 1 square meter (11 sq ft) of live coral per day. [11] [5] [12] Despite the large amount of coral consumed, studies suggest that the golden pufferfish has little influence on coral abundance in the region. [11] [5]

Parrotfish are a family of fish that contain several corallivorous species. Reef-dwelling parrotfish have teeth on their lower and upper jaw that have evolved into an edge for cutting. [13] This cutting edge allows parrotfish to scrape and feed on coral tissue and skeleton. [13] The cutting edge on the teeth of parrotfish resembles a beak, which is the basis for the organism's common name. [13] In addition to the cutting edge adaptation, parrotfish also have well-developed crossed joints that connect the dentary and articular bones of the lower jaw, which presents a mechanical advantage that makes the bite much stronger. [13]

Invertebrates

There are 48 known corallivorous invertebrate species, 14 of which are obligate corallivores. [2] The facultative corallivore crown-of-thorns star is an important coral browser that feeds by everting its stomach and using its tube feet to spread the stomach over the coral and into the crevices between polyps. [5] [14] Occurrences of high crown-of-thorns star population densities has resulted in documented decimation of large coral reef tracts, with reports of 100% coral mortality in localized areas. [2] It is estimated that one crown-of-thorns star may eat up to 6 square meters (65 sq ft) of live coral per year. [2]

Crown-of-thorns star on coral in the Red Sea Doornenkroon.JPG
Crown-of-thorns star on coral in the Red Sea

The genus Drupella are obligate corallivorous sea snails that specialize on fast growing Acropora and Montipora species. [2] Like crown-of-thorns star, Drupella aggregations have been known to destroy large areas of coral, [5] and have been cited as the cause for instances of significant coral reduction in Toga Bay, Japan, and Ningaloo Reef, Australia. [2]

Scars from parrotfish spot biting Parrotfish scrape marks.jpg
Scars from parrotfish spot biting

Most corallivores display a preference for one or a few types of coral. [5] However, the obligate corallivore snail, Coralliophila abbreviata , is known to feed on 26 different species of coral and shows no distinct preference for one species. [2] C. abbreviata lacks a radula that would allow it to scrape off coral tissue, so coral is broken down by digestive enzymes. [15]

Not all corallivores are detrimental to coral health. Corals with populations of the mucus feeding Tetralia and Trapezia crabs were shown to have a greater chance of survival during an crown-of-thorns star outbreak. [2] Trapezia crabs are known to symbiotically benefit their host coral by cleaning sediment and debris off their surface. [2]

Some organisms receive more than nutrition. The nudibranch, Phestilla sibogae, has been known to incorporate zooxanthellae, a phytoplankton symbiont, harvested through corallivory into its cerata. [2] After they are incorporated, the zooxanthellae continue to photosynthesize and provide energy for the nudibranch. [2]

Impacts on ecosystem

Group of Drupella snails feeding on Acropora in Thailand D. Rugosa, Feeding Aggregation, KohTao, Thailand, 30 Aug. 2010.jpg
Group of Drupella snails feeding on Acropora in Thailand

Corallivory often results in damage to coral or loss of coral biomass, and sometime directly causes coral death. [16] Corals divert energy and resources towards repairing damage, which has shown to suppress additional growth. [2] [11] [5] [6] The ability for a coral to repair itself is partially based on the size of the lesion; since not all damage can be healed, superfluous damage can result in permanent change to the reef. [2] Corals have shown to energetically prioritize repairing damage over reproducing, so corallivory can have a negative effect on coral reproduction. [2] [11] [5] [6] Additionally, studies have shown that grazing by corallivores can be associated with reduced zooxanthellae densities. [5]

Scientists believe that excessive fishing of predators to corallivores, like large piscivorous fish, may result in an increase in corallivore abundance. This increase in corallivory may have a future negative effect on coral health and density. [16]

Corallivory can indirectly cause an increase in growth of competitive organisms, such as algae and sponges. [2] Additionally, some corallivores have been implicated in the spread of coral diseases. [2] Some studies have shown that corallivores can have an influence on the competitive abilities of coral colonies. [5]

Corallivory is not always detrimental to coral reefs. If the species of coral being consumed is spatially dominant, grazing can help control growth and promote greater reef diversity. [5]

Corallivores are often sensitive to declines in coral health and population size, and are negatively affected during periods of high coral loss. [5] In particular, obligate corallivores have been reported to experience high population declines following instances of coral loss. [5] Studies have shown that corallivores suffer during bleaching events, suggesting that bleached coral is not as nutritional as healthy coral. [5] Scientific investigation into the nutritional value of healthy and bleached coral is lacking. However, it has been determined that the disparity in nutritional value is not related to the concentration of zooxanthellae. [5]

Known corallivores

This list contains the majority of known corallivores, as research is actively ongoing.

PhylumFamilySpecies [5] [2] Diet
(Obligate or Facultative) [5] [2]
Preferred Prey [2] Region [5] [2] Evidence of Corallivory [5]
AnnelidaAmphinomidae Hermodice carunculata FacultativeAcropora, Millepora, Oculina, PoritesCaribbeans, Eastern Atlantic, Mediterranean
ArthropodaAlpheidaeAlpheus lottiniFacultativePocilloporaRed Sea, Eastern Pacific
ArthropodaDiogenidaeAniculus elegansFacultativePocilloporaEastern Pacific
ArthropodaDiogenidaeCalcinus obscurusEastern Pacific
ArthropodaDiogenidaeTrizopagurus magnificusFacultativePocilloporaEastern Pacific
ArthropodaPyrgomatidaeHoekia monticulariaeObligateIndo-Pacific
ArthropodaTetraliidaeTetralia glaberrimaObligateAcropora, SeriatoporaRed Sea, Indo-Pacific
ArthropodaTetraliidaeTetralia cavimanaObligateAcroporaRed Sea, Indo-Pacific
ArthropodaTrapeziidaeTrapezia cymodoceObligatePocillopora, StylophoraIndo-Pacific, Eastern Pacific
ArthropodaTrapeziidaeTrapezia ferrugineaObligatePocilloporaIndo-Pacific, Eastern Pacific
ChordataBalistidae Balistapus undulatus FacultativePavona, Pocillopora, PoritesRed Sea, Indo-PacificGut contents
ChordataBalistidae Balistoides viridescens FacultativeRed Sea, Indo-PacificAnecdotal
ChordataBalistidae Rhinecanthus aculeatus FacultativeIndo-PacificGut contents
ChordataBalistidae Melichthys niger FacultativeColpolphylliaAll tropical oceansGut contents
ChordataBalistidae Pseudobalistes flavimarginatus FacultativeRed Sea, Indo-PacificAnecdotal
ChordataBalistidae Pseudobalistes naufragium FacultativeEastern PacificAnecdotal
ChordataBalistidae Sufflamen fraenatum FacultativePocillopora, Porites, PavonaIndo-PacificGut contents
ChordataBlennidae Ecsenius bicolor FacultativeIndo-PacificObservation
ChordataBlennidae Exallias brevis ObligateAcroporaIndo-PacificGut contents
ChordataChaetodontidae Chaetodon adiergastos FacultativeWestern PacificAnecdotal
ChordataChaetodontidae Chaetodon andamanensis ObligateEastern IndianAnecdotal
ChordataChaetodontidae Chaetodon argentatus FacultativeWestern PacificGut contents
ChordataChaetodontidae Chaetodon aureofasciatus ObligateIndo-PacificObservations
ChordataChaetodontidae Chaetodon auriga FacultativeRed Sea, Indo-PacificGut contents
ChordataChaetodontidae Chaetodon auripes FacultativeWestern PacificGut contents
ChordataChaetodontidae Chaetodon austriacus ObligateRed SeaGut contents
ChordataChaetodontidae Chaetodon baronessa ObligateEastern PacificGut contents
ChordataChaetodontidae Chaetodon bennetti ObligateIndo-PacificGut contents
ChordataChaetodontidaeChaetodon blackburniiFacultativeIndianAnecdotal
ChordataChaetodontidae Chaetodon capistratus FacultativeCaribbeanGut contents
ChordataChaetodontidae Chaetodon citrinellus FacultativeIndo-PacificGut contents
ChordataChaetodontidae Chaetodon collare FacultativeRed Sea, IndianAnecdotal
ChordataChaetodontidae Chaetodon daedalma FacultativeNorthwestern PacificGut contents
ChordataChaetodontidae Chaetodon decussatus FacultativeIndianAnecdotal
ChordataChaetodontidae Chaetodon ephippium FacultativeIndo-PacificGut contents
ChordataChaetodontidae Chaetodon falcula FacultativeIndianObservations
ChordataChaetodontidae Chaetodon fasciatus FacultativeRed SeaGut contents
ChordataChaetodontidae Chaetodon flavirostris FacultativePacificAnecdotal
ChordataChaetodontidae Chaetodon fremblii FacultativeHawaiiAnecdotal
ChordataChaetodontidae Chaetodon gardineri FacultativeWestern IndianAnecdotal
ChordataChaetodontidae Chaetodon guttatissimus FacultativeIndianAnecdotal
ChordataChaetodontidae Chaetodon interruptus FacultativeIndianAnecdotal
ChordataChaetodontidae Chaetodon kleinii FacultativeIndo-PacificGut contents
ChordataChaetodontidae Chaetodon larvatus ObligateRed SeaGut contents
ChordataChaetodontidaeChaetodon leucopleuraFacultativeWestern IndianAnecdotal
ChordataChaetodontidae Chaetodon lineolatus FacultativeIndo-PacificAnecdotal
ChordataChaetodontidae Chaetodon lunula FacultativeIndo-PacificGut contents
ChordataChaetodontidae Chaetodon lunulatus ObligateIndo-PacificGut contents
ChordataChaetodontidae Chaetodon melannotus ObligateRed Sea, Indo-PacificGut contents
ChordataChaetodontidae Chaetodon melapterus ObligateRed SeaGut contents
ChordataChaetodontidae Chaetodon mertensii FacultativeIndo-PacificGut contents
ChordataChaetodontidaeChaetodon mesoleucosFacultativeRed SeaGut contents
ChordataChaetodontidae Chaetodon meyeri ObligateIndo-PacificGut contents
ChordataChaetodontidae Chaetodon multicinctus ObligateHawaiiGut contents
ChordataChaetodontidaeChaetodon nigropunctatusFacultativeRed SeaAnecdotal
ChordataChaetodontidae Chaetodon nippon FacultativePacificGut contents
ChordataChaetodontidae Chaetodon ocellatus FacultativeCaribbeanAnecdotal
ChordataChaetodontidae Chaetodon ocellicaudus ObligateWestern PacificAnecdotal
ChordataChaetodontidae Chaetodon octofasciatus ObligateIndo-PacificAnecdotal
ChordataChaetodontidae Chaetodon ornatissimus ObligateIndo-PacificGut contents
ChordataChaetodontidae Chaetodon oxycephalus FacultativeIndo-PacificAnecdotal
ChordataChaetodontidae Chaetodon paucifasciatus FacultativeRed SeaGut contents
ChordataChaetodontidae Chaetodon pelewensis FacultativeIndo-PacificGut contents
ChordataChaetodontidae Chaetodon plebeius ObligateIndo-PacificGut contents
ChordataChaetodontidae Chaetodon punctatofasciatus ObligateIndo-PacificGut contents
ChordataChaetodontidae Chaetodon quadrimaculatus FacultativeIndo-PacificGut contents
ChordataChaetodontidaeChaetodon rafflesiFacultativeIndo-PacificGut contents
ChordataChaetodontidae Chaetodon rainfordi ObligateWestern PacificObservations
ChordataChaetodontidae Chaetodon reticulatus ObligatePacificGut contents
ChordataChaetodontidae Chaetodon semilarvatus ObligateRed SeaGut contents
ChordataChaetodontidae Chaetodon speculum FacultativeIndo-PacificGut contents
ChordataChaetodontidae Chaetodon triangulum ObligateIndianAnecdotal
ChordataChaetodontidaeChaetodon tricinctusFacultativeLord HowelsObservations
ChordataChaetodontidae Chaetodon trichrous FacultativeSociety IslandsObservations
ChordataChaetodontidae Chaetodon trifascialis ObligateRed Sea, Indo-PacificGut contents
ChordataChaetodontidae Chaetodon trifasciatus ObligateIndianGut contents
ChordataChaetodontidaeChaetodon ulientensisFacultativeIndo-PacificGut contents
ChordataChaetodontidae Chaetodon unimaculatus ObligateIndo-PacificGut contents
ChordataChaetodontidae Chaetodon vagabundus FacultativeRed Sea, Indo-PacificGut contents
ChordataChaetodontidae Chaetodon xanthocephalus FacultativeIndianGut contents
ChordataChaetodontidae Chaetodon xanthurus FacultativePacificAnecdotal
ChordataChaetodontidaeChaetodon zanzibariensisObligateWestern IndianObservations
ChordataChaetodontidae Forcipiger flavissimus FacultativeRed Sea, Indo-PacificGut contents
ChordataChaetodontidae Heniochus acuminatus FacultativeIndo-PacificAnecdotal
ChordataChaetodontidae Heniochus chrysostomus FacultativeIndo-PacificGut contents
ChordataChaetodontidae Heniochus intermedius FacultativeRed SeaGut contents
ChordataChaetodontidae Heniochus singularius ObligateIndo-PacificGut contents
ChordataChaetodontidae Heniochus varius FacultativePacificGut contents
ChordataGobiidae Gobiodon citrinus ObligateAcroporaRed Sea, Indo-PacificGut contents
ChordataGobiidae Gobiodon okinawae FacultativeWestern PacificGut contents
ChordataGobiidaeParagobidon echinocephalusFacultativeIndo-PacificAnecdotal
ChordataLabridae Diproctacanthus xanthurus ObligateWestern PacificObservations
ChordataLabridae Labrichthys unilineatus ObligateAcropora, MontiporaIndo-PacificGut contents
ChordataLabridaeLabropsis alleniObligateWestern PacificObservations
ChordataLabridaeLabropsis australisObligateWestern PacificAnecdotal
ChordataLabridaeLabropsis manabeiObligateIndo-PacificAnecdotal
ChordataLabridaeLabropsis micronesicaFacultativeWestern PacificAnecdotal
ChordataLabridaeLabropsis polynesicaFacultativeEastern PacificAnecdotal
ChordataLabridaeLabropsis xanthonotaObligateIndo-PacificAnecdotal
ChordataLabridae Larabicus quadrilineatus ObligateRed SeaObservations
ChordataLabridaeChoerodon graphicusFacultativeSouthwestern PacificGut contents
ChordataMonacanthidae Aluterus scriptus FacultativeAll tropical oceansGut contents
ChordataMonacanthidae Cantherhines dumerilii ObligateAcropora, Pocillopora, Montipora, Leptoria, PoritesIndo-PacificGut contents
ChordataMonacanthidae Cantherhines macrocerus FacultativeCaribbeansGut contents
ChordataMonacanthidae Cantherhines pullus FacultativeCaribbeansGut contents
ChordataMonacanthidaeCantherhines sandwichiensisFacultativeEastern PacificAnecdotal
ChordataMonacanthidaeOxymonacanthus halliObligateRed SeaAnecdotal
ChordataMonacanthidae Oxymonacanthus longirostris ObligateAcroporaIndo-PacificGut contents
ChordataMonacanthidae Pervagor spilosoma FacultativeHawaiiGut contents
ChordataOstraciidae Ostracion cubicus FacultativeRed Sea, Indo-PacificGut contents
ChordataOstraciidaeLactoria diaphanaFacultativeIndo-PacificGut contents
ChordataPomacanthidaeCentropyge multispinusFacultativeIndo-PacificAnecdotal
ChordataPomacanthidae Pomacanthus arcuatus FacultativeCaribbeansAnecdotal
ChordataPomacentridaeCheiloprion labiatusObligateAcroporaIndo-PacificGut contents
ChordataPomacentridae Neoglyphidodon melas FacultativeRed Seas, Indo-PacificGut contents
ChordataPomacentridae Microspathodon chrysurus FacultativeCaribbeansGut contents
ChordataPomacentridaePlectroglyphidodon dickiiFacultativeAcropora, PocilloporaIndo-PacificGut contents
ChordataPomacentridae Plectroglyphidodon johnstonianus ObligateAcroporaIndo-PacificGut contents
ChordataPomacentridae Stegastes acapulcoensis FacultativeEastern PacificAnecdotal
ChordataPomacentridae Stegastes leucostictus FacultativeCaribbeansGut contents
ChordataPomacentridae Stegastes variabilis FacultativeCaribbeansGut contents
ChordataScaridae Bolbometopon muricatum FacultativeAcropora, Pocillopora, Porites, MontiporaRed Sea, Indo-PacificObservations
ChordataScaridae Cetoscarus bicolor FacultativePoritesIndo-PacificObservations
ChordataScaridae Chlorurus microrhinos FacultativeIndo-PacificObservations
ChordataScaridae Chlorurus strongylocephalus FacultativePavona, Pocillopora, PoritesIndianObservations
ChordataScaridae Sparisoma aurofrenatum FacultativeMontastraea, Porites, MadracisCaribbeansAnecdotal
ChordataScaridae Sparisoma viride FacultativePorites, MontastraeaCaribbeansObservations
ChordataScaridae Scarus coelestinus FacultativeCaribbeansGut contents
ChordataScaridae Scarus guacamaia FacultativeCaribbeansObservations
ChordataTetraodontidae Arothron hispidus FacultativePocilloporaRed Sea, Indo-PacificGut contents
ChordataTetraodontidae Arothron meleagris ObligateAcropora, Pocillopora, Porites, Pavona, Psammocora, MontiporaIndo-PacificGut contents
ChordataTetraodontidae Arothron nigropunctatus ObligateAcropora, Pavona, Pocillpora, PoritesIndo-PacificGut contents
ChordataTetraodontidae Arothron reticularis FacultativeIndo-PacificAnecdotal
ChordataTetraodontidae Arothron stellatus FacultativeRed Sea, Indo-PacificAnecdotal
ChordataTetraodontidae Canthigaster amboinensis FacultativeIndo-PacificGut contents
ChordataTetraodontidae Canthigaster margaritata FacultativeRed Sea, Indo-PacificAnecdotal
ChordataTetraodontidae Canthigaster solandri FacultativeIndo-PacificGut contents
ChordataTetraodontidaeCanthigaster valentineFacultativePavona, Pocillopora, PoritesRed Sea, Indo-PacificObservations
EchinodermataAcanthasteridae Acanthaster planci FacultativeAcropora, Montipora, PocilloporaIndo-Pacific, Eastern Pacific
EchinodermataCidaridae Eucidaris thouarsii FacultativePavona, PocilloporaEastern Pacific
EchinodermataDiadematidae Astropyga radiata FacultativeEastern Indian
EchinodermataDiadematidae Diadema antillarum FacultativeAcropora, Agaricia, Madracis, Montastraea, PoritesCaribbeans
EchinodermataDiadematidae Diadema setosum FacultativeEastern Indian
EchinodermataDiadematidae Echinothrix calamaris FacultativeEastern Indian
EchinodermataEchinasteridaeEchinaster purpureusFacultativePoritesWestern Indian
EchinodermataEchinometridae Echinometra mathaei FacultativeIndo-Pacific, Caribbeans
EchinodermataEchinometridae Echinometra viridis FacultativeCaribbeans
EchinodermataEchinoneidaeEchinoneus cyclostomusFacultativeWestern Indian
EchinodermataOphidiasteridae Linckia laevigata FacultativePoritesWestern Indian, Indo-Pacific
EchinodermataOphidiasteridaeNardoa variolataFacultativePoritesWestern Indian
EchinodermataOphidiasteridaePharia pyramidataFacultativePocilloporaEastern Pacific
EchinodermataOreasteridae Culcita novaeguineae FacultativeAcropora, PocillporaIndo-Pacific
EchinodermataOreasteridae Culcita schmideliana FacultativeAcropora, Galaxea, GoniastreaWestern Indian
EchinodermataOreasteridae Nidorellia armata FacultativePavonaEastern Pacific
EchinodermataOreasteridae Pentaceraster cumingi FacultativePsammocoraEastern Pacific
EchinodermataTemnopleuridaeMicrocyphus rousseauiFacultativeWestern Indian
EchinodermataStomopneustidae Stomopneustes variolaris FacultativeWestern Indian
EchinodermataStomopneustidaeTripneustes gratilliaFacultativeWestern Indian
MolluscaArchitectonicidaePsilaxis radiatusFacultativePoritesPacific
MolluscaEpitoniidaeEpifungium uluFungiaPacific
MolluscaMuricidaeBabelomurex hindsiPocilloporaEastern Pacific
MolluscaMuricidae Coralliophila galea ObligateNo preference shownCaribbeans
MolluscaMuricidae Coralliophila violacea PoritesIndo-Pacific
MolluscaMuricidae Coralliophila caribaea Acropora, PoritesCaribbeans
MolluscaMuricidae Coralliophila monodonta ObligateMontipora, Pocillopora, Porites, Seriatopora, StylophoraIndo-Pacific, Eastern Pacific
MolluscaMuricidae Drupella cornus ObligateAcropora, Montipora, Pocillopora, Porites, Seriatopora, StylophoraRed Sea, Indo-Pacific
MolluscaMuricidaeDrupella elataObligateAcropora, Montipora, Pocillopora, PoritesIndo-Pacific
MolluscaMuricidae Drupella fragum ObligateAcropora, Montipora, Pocillopora, Porites, Seriatopora, StylophoraIndo-Pacific
MolluscaMuricidae Drupella rugosa ObligateAcropora, Montipora, Pocillopora, Porites, Seriatopora, StylophoraIndo-Pacific
MolluscaMuricidae Morula spinosa
MolluscaMuricidaeMuricopsis zetekiPocilloporaEastern Pacific
MolluscaOvulidae Jenneria pustulata ObligatePocillopora, Porites, SiderastreaEastern Pacific
MolluscaOvulidae Pedicularia decussata SolenastreaCaribbeans
MolluscaTrinchesiidae Phestilla sibogae ObligatePoritesPacific
MolluscaTrinchesiidae Phestilla melanobrachia ObligateTurbinariaIndo-Pacific
MolluscaTrinchesiidae Phestilla minor ObligatePoritesIndo-Pacific

See also

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Parrotfish are a group of fish species traditionally regarded as a family (Scaridae), but now often treated as a subfamily (Scarinae) or tribe (Scarini) of the wrasses (Labridae). With roughly 95 species, this group's largest species richness is in the Indo-Pacific. They are found in coral reefs, rocky coasts, and seagrass beds, and can play a significant role in bioerosion.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">White band disease</span> Disease affecting marine corals

White band disease is a coral disease that affects acroporid corals and is distinguishable by the white band of exposed coral skeleton that it forms. The disease completely destroys the coral tissue of Caribbean acroporid corals, specifically elkhorn coral and staghorn coral. The disease exhibits a pronounced division between the remaining coral tissue and the exposed coral skeleton. These symptoms are similar to white plague, except that white band disease is only found on acroporid corals, and white plague has not been found on any acroporid corals. It is part of a class of similar disease known as "white syndromes", many of which may be linked to species of Vibrio bacteria. While the pathogen for this disease has not been identified, Vibrio carchariae may be one of its factors. The degradation of coral tissue usually begins at the base of the coral, working its way up to the branch tips, but it can begin in the middle of a branch.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Alcyonacea</span> Order of octocorals that do not produce massive calcium carbonate skeletons

Alcyonacea are an order of sessile colonial cnidarians that are found throughout the oceans of the world, especially in the deep sea, polar waters, tropics and subtropics. Whilst not in a strict taxonomic sense, Alcyonacea are commonly known as soft corals. The term "soft coral" generally applies to organisms in the two orders Pennatulacea and Alcyonacea with their polyps embedded within a fleshy mass of coenenchymal tissue. Consequently, the term "gorgonian coral" is commonly handed to multiple species in the order Alcyonacea that produce a mineralized skeletal axis composed of calcite and the proteinaceous material gorgonin only and corresponds to only one of several families within the formally accepted taxon Gorgoniidae (Scleractinia). These can be found in order Malacalcyonacea (taxonomic synonyms of include : Alcyoniina, Holaxonia, Protoalcyonaria, Scleraxonia, and Stolonifera. They are sessile colonial cnidarians that are found throughout the oceans of the world, especially in the deep sea, polar waters, tropics and subtropics. Common names for subsets of this order are sea fans and sea whips; others are similar to the sea pens of related order Pennatulacea. Individual tiny polyps form colonies that are normally erect, flattened, branching, and reminiscent of a fan. Others may be whiplike, bushy, or even encrusting. A colony can be several feet high and across, but only a few inches thick. They may be brightly coloured, often purple, red, or yellow. Photosynthetic gorgonians can be successfully kept in captive aquaria.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ornate butterflyfish</span> Species of fish

The ornate butterflyfish, or clown butterflyfish is a species of marine ray-finned fish, a butterflyfish in the family Chaetodontidae.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fourspot butterflyfish</span> Species of fish

The four-spotted butterflyfish or fourspot butterflyfish is a species of butterflyfish found in the Pacific Ocean from the Ryukyus, Ogasawara (Bonin) Islands and Taiwan to the Hawaiian, Marquesan, and Pitcairn islands, south to the Samoan and Austral Islands and the Marianas and Marshall Islands in Micronesia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cleaner fish</span> Fish that remove parasites and dead tissue from other species

Cleaner fish are fish that show a specialist feeding strategy by providing a service to other species, referred to as clients, by removing dead skin, ectoparasites, and infected tissue from the surface or gill chambers. This example of cleaning symbiosis represents mutualism and cooperation behaviour, an ecological interaction that benefits both parties involved. However, the cleaner fish may consume mucus or tissue, thus creating a form of parasitism called cheating. The client animals are typically fish of a different species, but can also be aquatic reptiles, mammals, or octopuses. A wide variety of fish including wrasse, cichlids, catfish, pipefish, lumpsuckers, and gobies display cleaning behaviors across the globe in fresh, brackish, and marine waters but specifically concentrated in the tropics due to high parasite density. Similar behaviour is found in other groups of animals, such as cleaner shrimps.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lined butterflyfish</span> Species of fish

The lined butterflyfish is a species of marine ray-finned fish. a butterflyfish belonging to the family Chaetodontidae, one of the largest species in the genus Chaetodon. It has a wide range from the Red Sea to South Africa and as far east as southern Japan and Hawaii.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Midnight parrotfish</span> Species of fish

The midnight parrotfish is a species of parrotfish that inhabits coral reefs mainly in the Caribbean, Bahamas, and Florida.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Stoplight parrotfish</span> Species of fish

The stoplight parrotfish is a species of marine ray-finned fish, a parrotfish from the family Scaridae, inhabiting coral reefs in Florida, Caribbean Sea, Gulf of Mexico, Bermuda and as far south as Brazil. It mainly feeds on algae by scraping and excavating it with its teeth. Like most of its relatives, it is able to change sex.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Coral reef fish</span> Fish which live amongst or in close relation to coral reefs

Coral reef fish are fish which live amongst or in close relation to coral reefs. Coral reefs form complex ecosystems with tremendous biodiversity. Among the myriad inhabitants, the fish stand out as colourful and interesting to watch. Hundreds of species can exist in a small area of a healthy reef, many of them hidden or well camouflaged. Reef fish have developed many ingenious specialisations adapted to survival on the reefs.

<i>Drupella cornus</i> Species of gastropod

Drupella cornus, common name : the horn drupe, is a species of sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Muricidae, the murex snails or rock snails.

<i>Drupella rugosa</i> Species of gastropod

Drupella rugosa, common name : the rugose drupe, is a species of sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Muricidae, the murex snails or rock snails.

Cymo melanodactylus, the furry coral crab, is a species of small decapod crustacean in the family Xanthidae. It is found in the Indo-Pacific Ocean and lives in crevices and on the surface of corals in the genus Acropora.

<i>Astrangia poculata</i> Species of coral

Astrangia poculata, the northern star coral or northern cup coral, is a species of non-reefbuilding stony coral in the family Rhizangiidae. It is native to shallow water in the western Atlantic Ocean and the Caribbean Sea. It is also found on the western coast of Africa. The International Union for Conservation of Nature lists this coral as being of "least concern". Astrangia poculata is an emerging model organism for corals because it harbors a facultative photosymbiosis, is a calcifying coral, and has a large geographic range. Research on this emerging model system is showcased annually by the Astrangia Research Working Group, collaboratively hosted by Roger Williams University, Boston University, and Southern Connecticut State University

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ocean acidification in the Great Barrier Reef</span> Threat to the reef which reduces the viability and strength of reef-building corals

Ocean acidification threatens the Great Barrier Reef by reducing the viability and strength of coral reefs. The Great Barrier Reef, considered one of the seven natural wonders of the world and a biodiversity hotspot, is located in Australia. Similar to other coral reefs, it is experiencing degradation due to ocean acidification. Ocean acidification results from a rise in atmospheric carbon dioxide, which is taken up by the ocean. This process can increase sea surface temperature, decrease aragonite, and lower the pH of the ocean. The more humanity consumes fossil fuels, the more the ocean absorbs released CO₂, furthering ocean acidification.

<i>Chaetodon zanzibarensis</i> Species of fish

Chaetodon zanzibarensis, the Zanzibar butterflyfish, is a species of marine ray-finned fish, a butterflyfish belonging to the family Chaetodontidae. It has a wide distribution throughout the western Indian Ocean stretching from the eastern coast of Africa to Madagascar, the Seychelles, Réunion and Mauritius. Its named after the Tanzanian island of Zanzibar

<i>Chaetodon aureofasciatus</i> Species of fish

Chaetodon aureofasciatus, the golden butterflyfish, golden- banded butterflyfish, golden-striped butterflyfish or sunburst butterflyfish, is a species of marine ray-finned fish, a butterflyfish belonging to the family Chaetodontidae. This coral eating species is found on shallow reefs in the western Pacific Ocean.

Coral diseases are transmissible pathogens that cause the degradation of coral colonies. Coral cover in reef ecosystems has decreased significantly for a diverse set of reasons, ranging from variable environmental conditions to mechanical breakdowns from storms. In recent years, diseases that infect and kill coral have shown to be a threat to the health of coral reefs. Since the first coral disease was reported in 1965, many different kinds of diseases have popped up in mostly Caribbean waters. These diseases are diverse, including pathogens of bacteria, fungi, viruses, and protozoans. Coral diseases have widespread implications, impacting entire ecosystems and communities of organisms. Researchers are working to understand these diseases, and how potential treatments could stop these pathogens from causing the widespread death of corals in a way that permanently impacts the community structure of reefs.

<i>Scarus zelindae</i> Species of fish

Scarus zelindae is a species of fish of the Scaridae family in the order Perciformes. This species of Parrotfish can be brown, blue, green, yellow, and purple and can change their colors several times throughout their lifetime. They live for about 5–7 years and can be found in the southwestern Atlantic Ocean, primarily in Brazilian waters.

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