Cucumber

Last updated

Contents

Cucumber
ARS cucumber.jpg
Cucumbers growing on vines
Cucumber BNC.jpg
A single cucumber fruit
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Rosids
Order: Cucurbitales
Family: Cucurbitaceae
Genus: Cucumis
Species:
C. sativus
Binomial name
Cucumis sativus
L.

The cucumber (Cucumis sativus) is a widely-cultivated creeping vine plant in the family Cucurbitaceae that bears cylindrical to spherical fruits, which are used as culinary vegetables. [1] Considered an annual plant, [2] there are three main types of cucumber—slicing, pickling, and seedless—within which several cultivars have been created. The cucumber originates in Asia extending from India, Nepal, Bangladesh, China (Yunnan, Guizhou, Guangxi), and Northern Thailand, [3] [4] [5] [6] but now grows on most continents, and many different types of cucumber are grown commercially and traded on the global market. In North America, the term wild cucumber refers to plants in the genera Echinocystis and Marah , though the two are not closely related.

Description

The cucumber is a creeping vine that roots in the ground and grows up trellises or other supporting frames, wrapping around supports with thin, spiraling tendrils. [7] The plant may also root in a soilless medium, whereby it will sprawl along the ground in lieu of a supporting structure. The vine has large leaves that form a canopy over the fruits.[ citation needed ]

The fruit of typical cultivars of cucumber is roughly cylindrical, but elongated with tapered ends, and may be as large as 62 centimeters (24 in) long and 10 centimeters (4 in) in diameter. [8]

Cucumber fruits consist of 95% water (see nutrition table). In botanical terms, the cucumber is classified as a pepo, a type of botanical berry with a hard outer rind and no internal divisions. However, much like tomatoes and squashes, it is often perceived, prepared, and eaten as a vegetable. [9]

Flowering and pollination

Cucumis sativus flower Cucumis sativus 0002.JPG
Cucumis sativus flower
Genomic information
NCBI genome ID 1639
Ploidy diploid
Genome size 323.99 Mb
Sequenced organelle mitochondrion
Organelle size244.82 Mb
Year of completion2011

Most cucumber cultivars are seeded and require pollination. For this purpose, thousands of honey beehives are annually carried to cucumber fields just before bloom. Cucumbers may also be pollinated via bumblebees and several other bee species. Most cucumbers that require pollination are self-incompatible, thus requiring the pollen of another plant in order to form seeds and fruit. [10] Some self-compatible cultivars exist that are related to the 'Lemon cucumber' cultivar. [10]

A few cultivars of cucumber are parthenocarpic, the blossoms of which create seedless fruit without pollination, which degrades the eating quality of these cultivar. In the United States, these are usually grown in greenhouses, where bees are excluded. In Europe, they are grown outdoors in some regions, where bees are likewise excluded.[ citation needed ]

Traditional cultivars produce male blossoms first, then female, in about equivalent numbers. Newer gynoecious hybrid cultivars produce almost all female blossoms. They may have a pollenizer cultivar interplanted, and the number of beehives per unit area is increased, but temperature changes induce male flowers even on these plants, which may be sufficient for pollination to occur. [10]

In 2009, an international team of researchers announced they had sequenced the cucumber genome. [11]

Herbivore defense

Phytochemicals in cucumbers may discourage natural foraging by herbivores, such as insects, nematodes or wildlife. [12] As a possible defense mechanism, cucumbers produce cucurbitacin C, [13] which causes a bitter taste in some cucumber varieties. This potential mechanism is under preliminary research to identify whether cucumbers are able to deter herbivores and environmental stresses by using an intrinsic chemical defense, particularly in the leaves, cotyledons, pedicel, carpopodium, and fruit. [13] [14]

Nutrition, aroma, and taste

Cucumber, with peel, raw
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy 65 kJ (16 kcal)
3.63 g
Sugars 1.67
Dietary fiber 0.5 g
Fat
0.11 g
0.65 g
Vitamins Quantity
%DV†
Thiamine (B1)
2%
0.027 mg
Riboflavin (B2)
3%
0.033 mg
Niacin (B3)
1%
0.098 mg
Pantothenic acid (B5)
5%
0.259 mg
Vitamin B6
2%
0.04 mg
Folate (B9)
2%
7 μg
Vitamin C
3%
2.8 mg
Vitamin K
14%
16.4 μg
Minerals Quantity
%DV†
Calcium
1%
16 mg
Iron
2%
0.28 mg
Magnesium
3%
13 mg
Manganese
3%
0.079 mg
Phosphorus
2%
24 mg
Potassium
5%
147 mg
Sodium
0%
2 mg
Zinc
2%
0.2 mg
Other constituentsQuantity
Water95.23 g
Fluoride 1.3 µg
Link to USDA database entry
†Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults, [15] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies. [16]

Raw cucumber (with peel) is 95% water, 4% carbohydrates, 1% protein, and contains negligible fat. A 100-gram (3+1⁄2-ounce) reference serving provides 65 kilojoules (16 kilocalories) of food energy. It has a low content of micronutrients: it is notable only for vitamin K, at 16% of the Daily Value (table).

Depending on variety, cucumbers may have a mild melon aroma and flavor, in part resulting from unsaturated aldehydes, such as (E,Z)-nona-2,6-dienal , and the cis- and trans- isomers of 2-nonenal. [17] The slightly bitter taste of cucumber rind results from cucurbitacins. [18]

Varieties

In general cultivation, cucumbers are classified into three main cultivar groups: slicing, pickled, and seedless/burpless.

Uses

Culinary

Slicing

Cucumbers grown to eat fresh are called slicing cucumbers. The main varieties of slicers mature on vines with large leaves that provide shading. [19]

Slicers grown commercially for the North American market are generally longer, smoother, more uniform in color, and have much tougher skin. In contrast, those in other countries, often called European cucumbers, are smaller and have thinner, more delicate skin, often with fewer seeds, thus are often sold in plastic skin for protection. This variety may also be called a telegraph cucumber, particularly in Australasia. [20]

Pickling

Pickling with brine, sugar, vinegar, and spices creates various flavored products from cucumbers and other foods. [21] Although any cucumber can be pickled, commercial pickles are made from cucumbers specially bred for uniformity of length-to-diameter ratio and lack of voids in the flesh. Those cucumbers intended for pickling, called picklers, grow to about 7 to 10 cm (3 to 4 in) long and 2.5 cm (1 in) wide. Compared to slicers, picklers tend to be shorter, thicker, less-regularly shaped, and have bumpy skin with tiny white or black-dotted spines. Color can vary from creamy yellow to pale or dark green.[ citation needed ]

Gherkin

Gherkins, also called cornichons, [22] or baby pickles, are small cucumbers, typically those 2.5 to 12.5 centimetres (1 to 5 in) in length, often with bumpy skin, which are typically used for pickling. [23] [24] [25] The word gherkin comes from the early modern Dutch gurken or augurken ('small pickled cucumber'). [26] The term is also used in the name for Cucumis anguria , the West Indian gherkin, a closely related species. [27]

Burpless

Burpless cucumbers are sweeter and have a thinner skin than other varieties of cucumber. They are reputed to be easy to digest and to have a pleasant taste. They can grow as long as 60 centimeters (2 ft), are nearly seedless, and have a delicate skin. Most commonly grown in greenhouses, these parthenocarpic cucumbers are often found in grocery markets, shrink-wrapped in plastic. They are marketed as either burpless or seedless, as the seeds and skin of other varieties of cucumbers are said to give some people gas. [28]

Production

Top Cucumber and Gherkin producers
in 2020
Numbers in million tonnes
1. Flag of the People's Republic of China.svg  China 72.8 (79.74%)
2. Flag of Turkey.svg  Turkey 1.9 (2.08%)
3. Flag of Russia.svg  Russia 1.7 (1.86%)
4. Flag of Iran.svg  Iran 1.2 (1.31%)
5. Flag of Mexico.svg  Mexico 1.2 (1.31%)
World total91.3
Source: FAOSTAT [29]

In 2020, world production of cucumbers and gherkins was 91 million tonnes, led by China with 80% of the total. [29]

Cultivation history

Cultivated for at least 3,000 years, the cultivated cucumbers "Cucumis sativus" were domesticated in India from wild "C. sativus var. hardwickii". [30] [31] [32] where a great many varieties have been observed, along with its closest living relative, Cucumis hystrix . [33] Three main cultivar groups of cucumber are namely Eurasian cucumbers (slicing cucumbers eaten raw and immature), East Asian cucumbers (pickling cucumbers) and Xishuangbanna cucumbers. Based on demographic modelling, the East Asian C. sativus cultivars diverged from the Indian cultivars c. 2500 years ago. [34] It was probably introduced to Europe by the Greeks or Romans. Records of cucumber cultivation appear in France in the 9th century, England in the 14th century, and in North America by the mid-16th century. [1] [35] [36] [37]

Roman Empire

According to Pliny the Elder, the Emperor Tiberius had the cucumber on his table daily during summer and winter. In order to have it available for his table every day of the year, the Romans reportedly used artificial methods of growing (similar to the greenhouse system), whereby mirrorstone refers to Pliny's lapis specularis, believed to have been sheet mica: [38] [39]

Indeed, he was never without it; for he had raised beds made in frames upon wheels, by means of which the cucumbers were moved and exposed to the full heat of the sun; while, in winter, they were withdrawn, and placed under the protection of frames glazed with mirrorstone.

— Pliny the Elder, Natural History XIX.xxiii, "Vegetables of a Cartilaginous Nature—Cucumbers. Pepones"

Reportedly, they were also cultivated in specularia, cucumber houses glazed with oiled cloth. [38] Pliny describes the Italian fruit as very small, probably like a gherkin. He also describes the preparation of a medication known as elaterium. However, some scholars[ who? ] believe that he was instead referring to Ecballium elaterium , known in pre-Linnean times as Cucumis silvestris or Cucumis asininus ('wild cucumber' or 'donkey cucumber'), a species different from the common cucumber. [40] Pliny also writes about several other varieties of cucumber, including the cultivated cucumber, [41] and remedies from the different types (9 from the cultivated; 5 from the "anguine;" and 26 from the "wild").

Middle Ages

Charlemagne had cucumbers grown in his gardens in the 8th/9th century. They were reportedly introduced into England in the early 14th century, lost, then reintroduced approximately 250 years later. The Spaniards (through the Italian Christopher Columbus) brought cucumbers to Haiti in 1494. In 1535, Jacques Cartier, a French explorer, found "very great cucumbers" grown on the site of what is now Montreal.[ citation needed ]

Early-modern age

Trans,cis-2,6-Nonadienal, or cucumber aldehyde, is a component of the distinctive aroma of cucumbers. Trans-2,cis-6-Nonadienal.png
Trans,cis-2,6-Nonadienal, or cucumber aldehyde, is a component of the distinctive aroma of cucumbers.

Throughout the 16th century, European trappers, traders, bison hunters, and explorers bartered for the products of American Indian agriculture. The tribes of the Great Plains and the Rocky Mountains learned from the Spanish how to grow European crops. The farmers on the Great Plains included the Mandan and Abenaki. They obtained cucumbers and watermelons from the Spanish, and added them to the crops they were already growing, including several varieties of corn and beans, pumpkins, squash, and gourd plants. [42] The Iroquois were also growing them when the first Europeans visited them. [43]

In 1630, the Reverend Francis Higginson produced a book called New-Englands Plantation in which, describing a garden on Conant's Island in Boston Harbor known as The Governor's Garden, he states: [44]

The countrie aboundeth naturally with store of roots of great varietie[ sic ] and good to eat. Our turnips, parsnips, and carrots are here both bigger and sweeter than is ordinary to be found in England. Here are store of pompions, cowcumbers, and other things of that nature which I know not…

In New England Prospect (1633, England), William Wood published observations he made in 1629 in America: [45]

The ground affords very good kitchin gardens, for Turneps, Parsnips, Carrots, Radishes, and Pompions, Muskmillons, Isquoter-squashes, coucumbars, Onyons, and whatever grows well in England grows as well there, many things being better and larger.[ sic ]

Age of Enlightenment and later

Lobster, Crab, and a Cucumber by William Henry Hunt (watercolour, 1826 or 1827) Lobster, Crab, and a Cucumber - 1891P32.jpg
Lobster, Crab, and a Cucumber by William Henry Hunt (watercolour, 1826 or 1827)

In the later 17th century, a prejudice developed against uncooked vegetables and fruits. A number of articles in contemporary health publications stated that uncooked plants brought on summer diseases and should be forbidden to children. The cucumber kept this reputation for an inordinate period of time, "fit only for consumption by cows," which some believe is why it gained the name, cowcumber.[ citation needed ]

Samuel Pepys wrote in his diary on 22 August 1663: [46]

[T]his day Sir W. Batten tells me that Mr. Newburne is dead of eating cowcumbers, of which the other day I heard of another, I think.

According to 18th-century British writer Samuel Johnson, it was commonly said among English physicians that a cucumber “should be well sliced, and dressed with pepper and vinegar, and then thrown out, as good for nothing.” [47]

A copper etching made by Maddalena Bouchard between 1772 and 1793 shows this plant to have smaller, almost bean-shaped fruits, and small yellow flowers. The small form of the cucumber is figured in Herbals of the 16th century, however stating that "[i]f hung in a tube while in blossom, the Cucumber will grow to a most surprising length."[ citation needed ]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Grape</span> Fruit growing on woody vines in clusters

A grape is a fruit, botanically a berry, of the deciduous woody vines of the flowering plant genus Vitis. Grapes are a non-climacteric type of fruit, generally occurring in clusters.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mango</span> Species of fruit

A mango is an edible stone fruit produced by the tropical tree Mangifera indica. It originated from the region between northwestern Myanmar, Bangladesh, and northeastern India. M. indica has been cultivated in South and Southeast Asia since ancient times resulting in two types of modern mango cultivars: the "Indian type" and the "Southeast Asian type". Other species in the genus Mangifera also produce edible fruits that are also called "mangoes", the majority of which are found in the Malesian ecoregion.

<i>Cucurbita</i> Genus of herbaceous vines in the gourd family, Cucurbitaceae

Cucurbita is a genus of herbaceous fruits in the gourd family, Cucurbitaceae, native to the Andes and Mesoamerica. Five edible species are grown and consumed for their flesh and seeds. They are variously known as squash, pumpkin, or gourd, depending on species, variety, and local parlance. Other kinds of gourd, also called bottle-gourds, are native to Africa and belong to the genus Lagenaria, which is in the same family and subfamily as Cucurbita, but in a different tribe. These other gourds are used as utensils or vessels, and their young fruits are eaten much like those of the Cucurbita species.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Radish</span> Root vegetable of the family Brassicaceae

The radish is an edible root vegetable of the mustard family, Brassicaceae, that was domesticated in Asia prior to Roman times.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Melon</span> Type of fruit

A melon is any of various plants of the family Cucurbitaceae with sweet, edible, and fleshy fruit. The word "melon" can refer to either the plant or specifically to the fruit. Botanically, a melon is a kind of berry, specifically a "pepo". The word melon derives from Latin melopepo, which is the latinization of the Greek μηλοπέπων (mēlopepōn), meaning "melon", itself a compound of μῆλον (mēlon), "apple", treefruit " and πέπων (pepōn), amongst others "a kind of gourd or melon". Many different cultivars have been produced, particularly of cantaloupes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Parthenocarpy</span> Production of seedless fruit without fertilisation

In botany and horticulture, parthenocarpy is the natural or artificially induced production of fruit without fertilisation of ovules, which makes the fruit seedless. The phenomenon has been observed since ancient times but was first scientifically described by German botanist Fritz Noll in 1902.

<i>Momordica charantia</i> Bitter melon, tropical & subtropical

Momordica charantia is a tropical and subtropical vine of the family Cucurbitaceae, widely grown in Asia, Africa, and the Caribbean for its edible fruit. Its many varieties differ substantially in the shape and bitterness of the fruit.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Zucchini</span> Edible summer squash

The zucchini, courgette or baby marrow is a summer squash, a vining herbaceous plant whose fruit are harvested when their immature seeds and epicarp (rind) are still soft and edible. It is closely related, but not identical, to the marrow; its fruit may be called marrow when mature.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Marrow (vegetable)</span> Fruit of the squash variety

A marrow is the mature fruit of certain Cucurbita pepo cultivars used as a vegetable. The immature fruit of the same or similar cultivars is called courgette or zucchini. Like courgettes, marrows are oblong, green squash, but marrows have a firm rind and a neutral flavour, making them useful as edible casings for mincemeat and other stuffings. They can be stored for several weeks after harvest, to be processed for food when required. They are a vegetable used in Great Britain and areas with significant British influence, though their popularity is waning in favor of immature summer squash like courgette.

<i>Cucumis</i> Genus of flowering plants

Cucumis is a genus of twining, tendril-bearing plants in the family Cucurbitaceae which includes the cucumber, true melons, the horned melon, and the West Indian gherkin.

<i>Cucumis anguria</i> Species of flowering plant

Cucumis anguria, commonly known as maroon cucumber, West Indian gherkin, maxixe, burr gherkin,cackrey, and West Indian gourd, is a vine that is indigenous to Africa, but has become naturalized in the New World, and is cultivated in many places. It is similar and related to the common cucumber (C. sativus) and its cultivars are known as gherkins.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Armenian cucumber</span> Vegetable

The Armenian cucumber, Cucumis melo Flexuosus Group or Cucumis melo var. flexuosus, is a type of long, slender fruit which tastes like a cucumber and looks somewhat like a cucumber inside. It is actually a variety of true melon, a species closely related to the cucumber. It is also known as the yard-long cucumber, snake cucumber, snake melon, chanbar in Persian, tirozî in Kurdish, sheng in Semnani, uri in Japanese, acur in Turkish, kakadee in Hindi, tar in Punjabi, قثاء in Arabic, commarella or tortarello in Italian. It should not be confused with the snake gourds. The skin is very thin, light green, and bumpless. It has no bitterness and the fruit is almost always used without peeling. It is also sometimes called a gutah.

<i>Cucurbita moschata</i> Species of flowering plant

Cucurbita moschata is a species originating in either Central America or northern South America. It includes cultivars known as squash or pumpkin. C. moschata cultivars are generally more tolerant of hot, humid weather than cultivars of C. maxima or C. pepo. They also generally display a greater resistance to disease and insects, especially to the squash vine borer. Commercially made pumpkin pie mix is most often made from varieties of C. moschata. The ancestral species of the genus Cucurbita were present in the Americas before the arrival of humans. No species within the genus is fully genetically isolated from all the other species. C. moschata can be hybridized with all other species. It has been suggested that this shows that the species of Cucurbita have diversified more recently than those of related genera such as Cucumis and Citrullus.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tomato</span> Edible berry

The tomato is the edible berry of the plant Solanum lycopersicum, commonly known as the tomato plant. The species originated in western South America, Mexico, and Central America. The Nahuatl word tomatl gave rise to the Spanish word tomate, from which the English word tomato derives. Its domestication and use as a cultivated food may have originated with the indigenous peoples of Mexico. The Aztecs used tomatoes in their cooking at the time of the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire, and after the Spanish encountered the tomato for the first time after their contact with the Aztecs, they brought the plant to Europe, in a widespread transfer of plants known as the Columbian exchange. From there, the tomato was introduced to other parts of the European-colonized world during the 16th century.

<i>Melothria scabra</i> Species of flowering plant

Melothria scabra, commonly known as the cucamelon, Mexican miniature watermelon, Mexican sour cucumber, Mexican sour gherkin, mouse melon, or pepquinos, is a species of flowering plant in the cucurbit family grown for its edible fruit. Its native range spans Mexico to Venezuela. Cucumis melo Agrestis and Cucumis callosus is cultivated as Chibber Fruit or Kachri in South Asia and can also grow as weed. Fruits are about the size of grapes and taste like cucumbers with a tinge of sourness. It may have been eaten by indigenous peoples before the European colonization of the Americas began.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pickled cucumber</span> Cucumber pickled in brine, vinegar, or other solution

A pickled cucumber – commonly known as a pickle in the United States and Canada and traditionally a gherkin in Britain, Ireland, South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand – is a usually small or miniature cucumber that has been pickled in a brine, vinegar, or other solution and left to ferment. The fermentation process is executed either by immersing the cucumbers in an acidic solution or through souring by lacto-fermentation. Pickled cucumbers are often part of mixed pickles.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Watermelon</span> Large gourd fruit with a smooth hard rind

Watermelon is a flowering plant species of the Cucurbitaceae family and the name of its edible fruit. A scrambling and trailing vine-like plant, it is a highly cultivated fruit worldwide, with more than 1,000 varieties.

<i>Cucumis melo</i> Species of plant

Cucumis melo, also known as melon, is a species of Cucumis that has been developed into many cultivated varieties. The fruit is a pepo. The flesh is either sweet or bland, with or without a musky aroma, and the rind can be smooth, ribbed, wrinkled, or netted. In North America, the sweet-flesh varieties are often collectively called muskmelon, including the musky netted-rind varieties and the inodorous smooth-rind varieties, and cantaloupe usually refers to the former type. However, muskmelon in a narrow sense only refers to the musky netted-rind type, also known as North American cantaloupe, while the true cantaloupe is the European type with ribbed and often warty rind that is seldom grown in North America.

References

  1. 1 2 "Cucumber." Encyclopædia Britannica . [1998] 2019.
  2. ↑ Silvertown, Jonathan (1985). "Survival, Fecundity and Growth of Wild Cucumber, Echinocystis Lobata". Journal of Ecology. 73 (3): 841–849. doi:10.2307/2260151. JSTOR   2260151.
  3. ↑ Chomicki, Guillaume; Schaefer, Hanno; Renner, Susanne S. (June 2020). "Origin and domestication of Cucurbitaceae crops: insights from phylogenies, genomics and archaeology". New Phytologist. 226 (5): 1240–1255. doi:10.1111/nph.16015.
  4. ↑ Weng, Yiqun (7 January 2021). "Cucumis sativus Chromosome Evolution, Domestication, and Genetic Diversity: Implications for Cucumber Breeding". Plant Breeding Reviews. Wiley: 79–111. doi:10.1002/9781119717003.ch4.
  5. ↑ "Cucumis sativus L." Plants of the World Online. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Retrieved 23 February 2023.
  6. ↑ Bisht, I. S.; Bhat, K.V.; Tanwar, S. P. S.; Bhandari, D. C.; Joshi, Kamal; Sharma, A. K. (January 2004). "Distribution and genetic diversity of Cucumis sativus var. hardwickii (Royle) Alef in India". The Journal of Horticultural Science and Biotechnology. 79 (5): 783–791. doi:10.1080/14620316.2004.11511843. ISSN   1462-0316.
  7. ↑ Mariod, Abdalbasit Adam; Mirghani, Mohamed Elwathig Saeed; Hussein, Ismail Hassan (14 April 2017). Cucumis sativus, Cucumber; Chapter 16 in: Unconventional Oilseeds and Oil Sources. Academic Press. ISBN   9780128134337.
  8. ↑ Zhang, Tingting; Li, Xvzhen; Yang, Yuting; Guo, Xiao; Feng, Qin; Dong, Xiangyu; Chen, Shuxia (2019). "Genetic analysis and QTL mapping of fruit length and diameter in a cucumber (Cucumber sativus L.) recombinant inbred line (RIL) population". Scientia Horticulturae. 250: 214–222. doi:10.1016/j.scienta.2019.01.062. S2CID   92837522.
  9. ↑ "Cucumber". Fruit or Vegetable?. Retrieved 5 December 2019.
  10. 1 2 3 Nonnecke, I.L. (1989). Vegetable Production. Springer. ISBN   9780442267216.
  11. ↑ Huang, S.; Li, R.; Zhang, Z.; Li, L.; et al. (2009). "The genome of the cucumber, Cucumis sativus L". Nature Genetics. 41 (12): 1275–81. doi: 10.1038/ng.475 . PMID   19881527.
  12. ↑ Shang Y, Ma Y, Zhou Y, et al. (November 2014). "Plant science. Biosynthesis, regulation, and domestication of bitterness in cucumber". Science. 346 (6213): 1084–8. Bibcode:2014Sci...346.1084S. doi:10.1126/science.1259215. PMID   25430763. S2CID   206561241.
  13. 1 2 Liu, Zhiqiang; Li, Yawen; Cao, Chunyu; Liang, Shan; Ma, Yongshuo; Liu, Xin; Pei, Yanxi (February 2019). "The role of H2S in low temperature-induced cucurbitacin C increases in cucumber". Plant Molecular Biology. 99 (6): 535–544. doi:10.1007/s11103-019-00834-w. PMID   30707394. S2CID   73431225.
  14. ↑ He, Jun (2022). "Terpene Synthases in Cucumber (Cucumis sativus) and Their Contribution to Herbivore-induced Volatile Terpenoid Emission". New Phytologist. 233 (2): 862–877. doi:10.1111/nph.17814. hdl:11245.1/e4b87361-6747-409a-a897-0e3939f560c0. PMC   9299122 . PMID   34668204. S2CID   239035917.
  15. ↑ United States Food and Drug Administration (2024). "Daily Value on the Nutrition and Supplement Facts Labels" . Retrieved 28 March 2024.
  16. ↑ National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; Health and Medicine Division; Food and Nutrition Board; Committee to Review the Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium (2019). Oria, Maria; Harrison, Meghan; Stallings, Virginia A. (eds.). Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium. The National Academies Collection: Reports funded by National Institutes of Health. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US). ISBN   978-0-309-48834-1. PMID   30844154.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  17. ↑ Schieberle, P.; Ofner, S.; Grosch, W. (1990). "Evaluation of Potent Odorants in Cucumbers (Cucumis sativus) and Muskmelons (Cucumis melo) by Aroma Extract Dilution Analysis". Journal of Food Science. 55: 193–195. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2621.1990.tb06050.x.
  18. ↑ Shang, Y; Ma, Y; Zhou, Y; Zhang, H; Duan, L; Chen, H; Zeng, J; Zhou, Q; Wang, S; Gu, W; Liu, M; Ren, J; Gu, X; Zhang, S; Wang, Y; Yasukawa, K; Bouwmeester, H. J.; Qi, X; Zhang, Z; Lucas, W. J.; Huang, S (2014). "Plant science. Biosynthesis, regulation, and domestication of bitterness in cucumber". Science. 346 (6213): 1084–8. Bibcode:2014Sci...346.1084S. doi:10.1126/science.1259215. PMID   25430763. S2CID   206561241.
  19. ↑ "Cucumbers: Planting, growing, and harvesting cucumbers". Old Farmer's Almanac, Yankee Publishing, Inc., Dublin, NH. 2016. Retrieved 11 August 2016.
  20. ↑ Cucumber – 5+ a day, New Zealand Retrieved 18 May 2018
  21. ↑ Avi, Torey (3 September 2014). "History in a jar: The story of pickles". Public Broadcasting Service. Retrieved 13 November 2017.
  22. ↑ "What's The Deal With Cornichons?". The Kitchn. 2017. Retrieved 13 November 2017.
  23. ↑ "Gherkins". Venlo, Netherlands: Zon. 2017. Archived from the original on 14 November 2017. Retrieved 13 November 2017.
  24. ↑ "Cucumbers" (PDF). University of California-Davis: Western Institute for Food Safety and Security, US Department of Agriculture. May 2016. Retrieved 13 November 2017.
  25. ↑ "Cucumbers and gherkins". Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority, Government of India. 2015. Retrieved 13 November 2017.
  26. ↑ "Word origin and history for gherkin". Dictionary.com. 2017. Retrieved 13 November 2017.
  27. ↑ "West Indian gherkin, Cucumis anguria L." Plants for a Future. 2012. Retrieved 13 November 2017.
  28. ↑ Jordan-Reilly, Melissa (15 September 2013). "Why do cucumbers upset my digestion?". LiveStrong.com.
  29. 1 2 "2019 Production of cucumbers and gherkins; from pick lists: World regions/Production Quantity". FAOSTAT of the United Nations. 2019. Retrieved 11 May 2021.
  30. ↑ Chomicki, Guillaume; Schaefer, Hanno; Renner, Susanne S. (June 2020). "Origin and domestication of Cucurbitaceae crops: insights from phylogenies, genomics and archaeology". New Phytologist. 226 (5): 1240–1255. doi:10.1111/nph.16015.
  31. ↑ Weng, Yiqun (7 January 2021). "Cucumis sativus Chromosome Evolution, Domestication, and Genetic Diversity: Implications for Cucumber Breeding". Plant Breeding Reviews. Wiley: 79–111. doi:10.1002/9781119717003.ch4.
  32. ↑ Bisht, I. S.; Bhat, K.V.; Tanwar, S. P. S.; Bhandari, D. C.; Joshi, Kamal; Sharma, A. K. (January 2004). "Distribution and genetic diversity of Cucumis sativus var. hardwickii (Royle) Alef in India". The Journal of Horticultural Science and Biotechnology. 79 (5): 783–791. doi:10.1080/14620316.2004.11511843. ISSN   1462-0316.
  33. ↑ Asian News International. 21 July 2010. "Cucumber, melon's common ancestor originated in Asia." NewsTrack India. Retrieved on 4 June 2020.
  34. ↑ Chomicki, Guillaume; Schaefer, Hanno; Renner, Susanne S. (June 2020). "Origin and domestication of Cucurbitaceae crops: insights from phylogenies, genomics and archaeology". New Phytologist. 226 (5): 1240–1255. doi: 10.1111/nph.16015 . ISSN   0028-646X.
  35. ↑ Renner, SS; Schaefer, H; Kocyan, A (2007). "Phylogenetics of Cucumis (Cucurbitaceae): Cucumber (C. sativus) belongs in an Asian/Australian clade far from melon (C. melo)". BMC Evolutionary Biology. 7: 58. doi: 10.1186/1471-2148-7-58 . PMC   3225884 . PMID   17425784.
  36. ↑ Doijode, S. D. 2001. Seed storage of horticultural crops. Haworth Press. ISBN   1-56022-901-2. p. 281.
  37. ↑ Zhuang, Fei-Yun; Chen, Jin-Feng; Staub, Jack E.; Qian, Chun-Tao (2006). "Taxonomic Relationships of A Rare Cucumis Species (C. hystrix Chakr.) and Its Interspecific Hybrid with Cucumber". HortScience. 41 (3): 571–574. doi: 10.21273/HORTSCI.41.3.571 .
  38. 1 2 James, Peter J.; Thorpe, Nick; Thorpe, I. J. (1995). "Ch. 12, Sport and Leusure: Roman Gardening Technology". Ancient Inventions. Ballantine Books. p. 563. ISBN   978-0-345-40102-1.
  39. ↑ Pliny the Elder. [77–79 AD] 1855. "Vegetables of a Cartilaginous Nature—Cucumbers. Pepones Archived 5 June 2020 at the Wayback Machine ." Ch. 23 in The Natural History XIX, translated by J. Bostock and H. T. Riley. London: Taylor & Francis. – via Perseus under PhiloLogic, also available via Perseus Project.
  40. ↑ Pliny the Elder, Natural History XX.iii Archived 5 June 2020 at the Wayback Machine .
  41. ↑ Pliny the Elder, Natural History XX.iv Archived 5 June 2020 at the Wayback Machine –v Archived 5 June 2020 at the Wayback Machine .
  42. ↑ Buchanan, David (2012). Taste, Memory: Forgotten Foods, Lost Flavors, and why They Matter. VT, USA: Chelsea Green Publishing. p. 109. ISBN   9781603584401.
  43. ↑ Kuhnlein, H. V.; Turner, N. J. (1996). Traditional Plant Foods of Canadian Indigenous Peoples: Nutrition, Botany and Use. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Gordon and Breach. p. 159. ISBN   9782881244650.
  44. ↑ Higginson, Francis. [1630] 1906. New-Englands Plantation . Salem, MA: Essex Book and Print Club. OCLC   1049892552. p. 5.
  45. ↑ Wood, William. (1634). "Of the Hearbes, Fruites, Woods, Waters and Mineralls", pp. 13–18 in New England Prospect. London.
  46. ↑ Saturday 22 August 1663 (Pepys' Diary). Pepysdiary.com. Retrieved on 25 November 2012.
  47. ↑ Boswell, James (1832). The Life of Samuel Johnson: Including A Journal of a Tour to the Hebrides, Volumen 1. Carter, Hendee and Company. p. 423. Retrieved 29 March 2024.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.