Height discrimination

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Height discrimination (also known as heightism) is prejudice or discrimination against individuals based on height. In principle, it refers to the discriminatory treatment against individuals whose height is not within the normal acceptable range of height in a population. Various studies have shown it to be a cause of bullying, commonly manifested as unconscious microaggressions. [1] [2]

Contents

Research indicates that people often use height as one factor to measure social status and fitness. Both the cognitive and the culturally-ingrained unconscious heuristic association between height and the mentioned traits has also been found to be stronger when assessing men than women. [3] [4] [5]

Lexicology

The term heightism was coined by sociologist Saul Feldman in a paper titled "The presentation of shortness in everyday life—height and heightism in American society: Toward a sociology of stature", presented at the meeting of the American Sociological Association in 1971. [6] [7] Heightism was included in the Second Barnhart Dictionary of New English (1971) [8] and popularized[ citation needed ] by Time magazine in a 1971 article on Feldman's paper. [9]

The term heightism can also be seen as an example of the increase in popular usage of phrases, particularly those relating to prejudice and discrimination, patterned after that of the word sexism. [8] Height discrimination can also come in the form of pejorative slang terms. [10]

Height and social discrimination

Employment wage and social experience discrimination

A 2004 study published in the Journal of Applied Psychology showed that height is strongly related to success for men. It showed that increase in height for men corresponds to increase in income after controlling for other social psychological variables like age and weight. [1] That same year, a study published in the Journal of Political Economy conjectured a "height premium" and found that "a 1.8-percent increase in wages accompanies every additional inch of height". They also found that men's wages as adults could be linked to their height at age 16. The researchers found that on an average an increase in height by one inch at age 16 increased male adult wages by 2.6 percent. This is equal to an increase of approximately $850 in 1996 annual earnings (or $1,650 today). [11] In other words, the height and corresponding social experiences of a taller male adolescent at age 16 would likely translate to higher wages in later adulthood as compared to a shorter male adolescent. [2]

Recent findings suggest that height discrimination occurs most often against racial minorities. A 2007 study published in the Journal of Vocational Behavior found that African-Americans reported higher weight and height related discrimination. This discrimination was even higher in female employees. [12]

In 2017, attorney and author Tanya Osensky published Shortchanged: Height Discrimination and Strategies for Social Change. [13] The book examines the cultural, medical, and occupational issues that short people face, which are often deemed unimportant and disregarded. Osensky challenges heightism by disclosing some beneficial aspects of shortness and suggesting avenues of activism and change.

In business

Some jobs require a minimum height. For example, US Military pilots have to be 160 to 200 centimetres (63 to 79 in) tall with a sitting height of 86 to 102 centimetres (34 to 40 in). [14] Other jobs require a maximum height or to be between a certain height range, such as flight attendant. [15] These exceptions noted, in the great majority of cases a person's height would not seem to have an effect on how well they are able to perform their job. Nevertheless, studies have shown that short people are paid less than taller people, with disparities similar in magnitude to the race and gender gaps. [16]

Surveys have uncovered that less than 3% of CEOs were below 1.70 m (5 ft 7 in) in height, and 90% of CEOs are of above average height. [17]

Perceived attractiveness

Initial studies indicated that taller men are more likely to be married and to have more children, except in societies with severe sex imbalances caused by war. [18] However, more recent research has drawn this theory into question, finding no correlation between height and offspring count, although the sample was 200 and consisted only of delinquent youth. [19] Moreover, research on leg length and leg-to-body ratio conflicts with the notion that there is a distinct preference for taller mates. A 2008 study found that both extremes, tall and short, reduced attractiveness, and a 2006 study found that a higher leg-to-body ratio in both genders increased aesthetic appeal. [20] [21] Conversely, research by Dan Ariely found that American women exhibit a marked preference for dating taller men, and that for shorter men to be judged attractive by women, they must earn substantially more money than taller men. [22]

A 2012 study found that both men and women are willing to excuse height differences by using a trade-off approach. Men may compensate 1.3 BMI units with a 1 percent higher wage than their wife. Women may compensate 2 BMI units with an additional year of higher education. [23] Furthermore, a 2015 study found that both men and women receive economic benefits from having a tall spouse. [23]

Nonetheless, on a cultural level in post-industrial society, a sociological relationship between height and perceived attractiveness exists. For instance, in a 2019 survey performed by Ipsos in Hungary with over 500 respondents, the perfect height for men for 53% of participants was between 1.78 m (5 ft 10 in) to 1.85 m (6 ft 1 in), while regarding female ideal height, 60% of respondents stated that it should be between 1.65 m (5 ft 5 in) and 1.75 m (5 ft 9 in), indicating a predominant preference for average to moderately tall height in both sexes. [24] A study produced by the Universities of Groningen and Valencia, found that the taller a man was, the less anxious he felt about attractive, physically dominant, and socially powerful rivals. [25] This cultural characteristic of conferring relevance to height as an indicator of attractiveness, while applicable to the modernized world, is not a transcendental human quality. [26]

In the media

In 1987 the BBC comedy series A Small Problem imagined a totalitarian society in which people under the height of 5 feet (1.5 m) were systematically discriminated against. The program attracted considerable criticism and complaints which accused the writers of reinforcing prejudice and of using offensive terms; the writers responded that their intention had been to show all prejudice was stupid and that height was chosen randomly. [27]

S&M Short and Male , a documentary aired in 2008, demonstrated the obstacles and bigotry that short statured men face every day in life, love and work. [28] [29] [30]

Law

Currently, there is one state in the United States of America, Michigan, that prohibits height discrimination. [31] There is pending legislation introduced by Massachusetts Representative Byron Rushing which would add Massachusetts to the list. [32] Three American cities currently prohibit height discrimination: Santa Cruz, California, [33] San Francisco, California, [34] and New York City; New York City prohibits it in employment, housing, and public accommodations. [35] The District of Columbia prohibits discrimination based on personal appearance. [36] Ontario, Canada, prohibits height discrimination under the human rights code. [37] Victoria, Australia, prohibits discrimination based on physical features under the Equal Opportunity Act of 1995. [38]

Examples of successful legal battles pursued against height discrimination in the workplace include a 2002 case involving highly qualified applicants being turned down for jobs at a bank because they were considered too short; [39] a 2005 Swedish case involving an unfair height requirement for employment implemented by Volvo; [40] and a 1999 case involving a Kohler Company informal practice not to consider women who applied for jobs unless they were at least 5 ft 4 in (1.63 m) tall. [41] Height requirements for employment which are not a bona fide occupational requirement are becoming less common.[ citation needed ] In 2022 the Supreme Court of Spain ruled that height requirements for joining the National Police Corps must take into account the average height for each sex in the Spanish population, disallowing a previous height rule for women. [42]

Height and suicide in men

A research report published in the American Journal of Psychiatry found a strong inverse association between height and suicide in Swedish men. In other words, the suicide rate was higher for shorter men. This may signify the importance of childhood exposure in the etiology of adult mental disorder or reflect stigmatization or discrimination encountered by short men in their adult lives. A record linkage study of the birth, conscription, mortality, family, and census register data of 1,299,177 Swedish men followed from age 18 to a maximum of age 49 was performed and it was found that a 5-cm (2-inch) increase in height was associated with a 9% decrease in suicide risk. [43]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Body mass index</span> Relative weight based on mass and height

Body mass index (BMI) is a value derived from the mass (weight) and height of a person. The BMI is defined as the body mass divided by the square of the body height, and is expressed in units of kg/m2, resulting from mass in kilograms (kg) and height in metres (m).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Turner syndrome</span> Chromosomal disorder in which a female is partially or completely missing an X chromosome

Turner syndrome (TS), also known as 45,X, or 45,X0, is a genetic disorder in which a female is partially or completely missing an X chromosome. Most people have two sex chromosomes. It only affects females. Signs and symptoms vary among those affected. Often, a short and webbed neck, low-set ears, low hairline at the back of the neck, short stature, and swollen hands and feet are seen at birth. Typically, those affected do not develop menstrual periods or breasts without hormone treatment and are unable to have children without reproductive technology. Heart defects, diabetes, and hypothyroidism occur in the disorder more frequently than average. Most people with Turner syndrome have normal intelligence; however, many have problems with spatial visualization that may be needed in order to learn mathematics. Vision and hearing problems also occur more often than average.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Flight attendant</span> Position in an aircrew

A flight attendant, traditionally known as a steward or stewardess ; or air host or hostess, is a member of the aircrew aboard commercial flights, many business jets and some government aircraft. Collectively called cabin crew, flight attendants are primarily responsible for passenger safety and comfort.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Human height</span> Aspect of human growth

Human height or stature is the distance from the bottom of the feet to the top of the head in a human body, standing erect. It is measured using a stadiometer, in centimetres when using the metric system or SI system, or feet and inches when using United States customary units or the imperial system.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Physical attractiveness</span> Aesthetic assessment of physical traits

Physical attractiveness is the degree to which a person's physical features are considered aesthetically pleasing or beautiful. The term often implies sexual attractiveness or desirability, but can also be distinct from either. There are many factors which influence one person's attraction to another, with physical aspects being one of them. Physical attraction itself includes universal perceptions common to all human cultures such as facial symmetry, sociocultural dependent attributes, and personal preferences unique to a particular individual.

Short stature refers to a height of a human which is below typical. Whether a person is considered short depends on the context. Because of the lack of preciseness, there is often disagreement about the degree of shortness that should be called short. Dwarfism is the condition of being very short, often caused by a medical condition. In a medical context, short stature is typically defined as an adult height that is more than two standard deviations below a population’s mean for age and sex, which corresponds to the shortest 2.3% of individuals in that population.

Employment discrimination is a form of illegal discrimination in the workplace based on legally protected characteristics. In the U.S., federal anti-discrimination law prohibits discrimination by employers against employees based on age, race, gender, sex, religion, national origin, and physical or mental disability. State and local laws often protect additional characteristics such as marital status, veteran status and caregiver/familial status. Earnings differentials or occupational differentiation—where differences in pay come from differences in qualifications or responsibilities—should not be confused with employment discrimination. Discrimination can be intended and involve disparate treatment of a group or be unintended, yet create disparate impact for a group.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Waist–hip ratio</span>

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">National Organization of Short Statured Adults</span> American non-profit advocacy group for adults of short stature

The National Organization of Short Statured Adults (NOSSA) was an American non-profit advocacy group for adults of short stature. The organization clearly defined "short stature" to be men 170 cm (5'7") or below and women 157.5 cm (5'2") or below in height. The group advocated on behalf of short people and hoped to foster greater acceptance of short people within society. NOSSA was opposed to the prejudice known as heightism. The group defined heightism as, "a prejudiced attitude about human height that often results in discrimination. It is based on the belief that short stature is an inferior trait and therefore undesirable." The organization ran a series of public education programs, sponsored height-related research, acted as a media "watch-dog" group, provided legal assistance for those affected by heightism, hosted online discussion groups, and invited members to gather once a year for an annual convention. NOSSA ended in early 2013 due to lack of support.

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References

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  2. 1 2 Persico, Nicola; Postlewaite, Andrew; Silverman, Dan (2004). "The Effect of Adolescent Experience on Labor Market Outcomes: The Case of Height" (PDF). Journal of Political Economy . 112 (5): 1019–53. doi:10.1086/422566. S2CID   158048477. Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 November 2017. Retrieved 21 October 2013.
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  4. ↑ Stulp, Gert; Buunk, Abraham P.; Verhulst, Simon; Pollet, Thomas V. (2015-02-26). "Human Height Is Positively Related to Interpersonal Dominance in Dyadic Interactions". PLOS ONE. 10 (2): e0117860. Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1017860S. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0117860 . ISSN   1932-6203. PMC   4342156 . PMID   25719490.
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  7. ↑ heightism, n." OED Online. June 2003. Oxford University Press. September 2006.
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  10. ↑ The Tall Book: A Celebration of Life from on High, Arianne Cohen - 2009
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  13. ↑ results, search (3 October 2017). Shortchanged: Height Discrimination and Strategies for Social Change. ForeEdge. ISBN   9781512601435.
  14. ↑ "U.S. Air Force ROTC despite statistical and physical evidence to support the proposition that short people consistently have reduced reaction times.: Admissions requirements". afrotc.com. Archived from the original on 8 October 2006. Retrieved 22 October 2017.
  15. ↑ "Weight & Height Restrictions for Flight Attendants". Work - Chron.com. Retrieved 2022-02-15.
  16. ↑ Donohue, Meg. "Why tall people make more money". CNN . Retrieved 22 October 2017.
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  20. ↑ Sorokowski, Piotr; Pawlowski, Boguslaw (2008-03-01). "Adaptive preferences for leg length in a potential partner". Evolution and Human Behavior. 29 (2): 86–91. doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2007.09.002. ISSN   1090-5138. Archived from the original on 2016-11-26. Alt URL
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  22. ↑ "Ariely found that a 5'4" man would need to make $229,000 more than a 6' man to have equal appeal; a 5'6" man would need $183,000 more; a 5'10" man would need $32,000 more." Lori Gottlieb (2010). Marry Him: The Case for Settling for Mr. Good Enough. Penguin, ISBN   9781101185209 p. 239
  23. 1 2 Sohn, Kitae (1 July 2015). "The value of male height in the marriage market". Economics and Human Biology . 18: 110–124. doi:10.1016/j.ehb.2015.05.004. PMID   26051039.
  24. ↑ Clark, Daniel (2019). "Height considered ideal for men/women in Hungary 2019". statista.com.
  25. ↑ Cressey, Daniel (2008-03-13). "Short men are the jealous type". The Nature blog. Archived from the original on 2009-12-25.
  26. ↑ Sear, Rebecca; Marlowe, Frank W. (2009-10-23). "How universal are human mate choices? Size does not matter when Hadza foragers are choosing a mate". Biology Letters. 5 (5): 606–609. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2009.0342. ISSN   1744-9561. PMC   2781963 . PMID   19570778.
  27. ↑ A Small Problem in BBC Comedy Guide.
  28. ↑ "CANOE - JAM! S&M: Short And Male: Short guys film rises to challenge". Jam.canoe.ca. 16 May 2008. Archived from the original on June 24, 2013. Retrieved 20 August 2013.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
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  30. ↑ "In short, stature's no joke, filmmaker argues". Canada.com. 11 May 2008. Retrieved 20 August 2013.
  31. ↑ Text of the Elliot Larsen Civil Rights Act of 1976.
  32. ↑ Text (PDF) of Massachusetts House bill 3752, 2006.
  33. ↑ Chapter 9.83 Archived 5 November 2006 at the Wayback Machine of the City of Santa Cruz code – "Prohibition against Discrimination", 1992.
  34. ↑ Text Archived 14 November 2006 at the Wayback Machine of Compliance Guidelines To Prohibit Weight and Height Discrimination; San Francisco Administrative Code Chapters 12A, 12B and 12C and San Francisco Municipal/Police Code Article 33, 26 July 2001.
  35. ↑ "Mayor Adams Signs Legislation To Prohibit Height Or Weight Discrimination In Employment, Housing, An". The official website of the City of New York. May 26, 2023.
  36. ↑ Text Archived 6 December 2006 at the Wayback Machine District of Columbia Human Rights Act.
  37. ↑ Policy on height and weight requirements Ontario, Canada Human Rights Code.
  38. ↑ Text Victoria, Australia Equal Opportunity Act of 1995.
  39. ↑ "Chinese height discrimination case". www.cnn.com. 2004-06-09. Retrieved 2023-12-18.
  40. ↑ Berg, Annika (2005-09-21). "Volvo's demand for a specific height for female work applicant is discrimination, the Swedish Labour Court rules". European Industrial Relations Observatory on-line. Archived from the original on 2012-09-18.
  41. ↑ Kohler Corp. Gender Discrimination Case Archived 29 August 2017 at the Wayback Machine .
  42. ↑ "Top Spanish court nixes height rule for women joining police". CityNews Toronto. Retrieved 2023-12-18.
  43. ↑ Magnusson, Patrik K.E.; Gunnell, David; Tynelius, Per; Davey Smith, George; Rasmussen, Finn (2005). "Strong Inverse Association Between Height and Suicide in a Large Cohort of Swedish Men: Evidence of Early Life Origins of Suicidal Behavior?". American Journal of Psychiatry. 162 (7): 1373–1375. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.162.7.1373. ISSN   0002-953X. PMID   15994722.
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