Incarceration prevention in the United States

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Incarceration prevention refers to a variety of methods aimed at reducing prison populations and costs while fostering enhanced social structures. Due to the nature of incarceration in the United States today caused by issues leading to increased incarceration rates, there are methods aimed at preventing the incarceration of at-risk populations.

Contents

Prison population and cost to society

Between 1998 and 2010, prison populations in the United States rose dramatically. This resulted in overcrowded facilities; increased expense to taxpayers; and potential loss of public funding for other community safety activities. [1] Between 1982 and 2007, corrections expenditures increased by over 250 percent and in 2007 expenditure was over $74 billion. [2] In 2010, the number of youths in detention facilities was 61,423. [3] By the end of 2012, approximately 2,228,400 individuals were incarcerated in jails and prisons, about 4,781,300 individuals were under some form of community supervision (such as probation or parole), and a total of approximately 6,937,600 individuals were under some form of correctional supervision (1 in 35 adults). [4] The average cost of the incarceration of an individual in 2012 was approximately $31,286 per year with a range of $14,603 to $60,076. [5] [6]

As of October 2015, the United States has the second highest incarceration rate in the world with 698 per 100,000 population. [7] Compared to other locations, 55% of countries and territories have prison rates lower than 155 per 100,000 population. [7] The average cost of incarceration rose to $31,977.65 in 2015. [8]

Factors contributing to incarceration rates

Substance use disorder prevention or treatment

Between 1980 and 2005, the number of inmates incarcerated for drug-related crimes increased by 1,000 percent. [9] In 2012, sixty-five percent of inmates reported a substance addiction or dependence issue. [10] Seventy-eight percent of violent crimes and eighty-three percent of property crimes involved drugs. [10] A greater amount of money is spent on incarceration than on prevention and treatment, despite research showing that treating drug addictions is more cost-effective than incarceration. [11] According to the National Institute on Drug Abuse, a full year of drug treatment costs approximately $4,700 compared to over $30,000 for a year of imprisonment. [12]

Mental health access/treatment

According to statistics produced by the U.S. Department of Justice in September 2006, over 45% of federal prisoners, 56% of state prisoners, and 64% of jail inmates are diagnosed with mental health problems. [13] This suggests a direct correlation between a decrease in mental health services and facilities and an increase in mental health diagnoses in the prison system. A decrease in mental health funding has taken place on both the state and federal level, especially in changes in block grant funding as part of the Omnibus Reconciliation Act of 1981. The statewide support for mental health services has also seen significant cuts and has barely accounted for annual inflation. [14] The overall shift from institution-based care to a community-based care model was one that many mental health advocates welcomed; however, the funding appropriated to support such programs was much less than initial estimates and has had a significant impact on the ability of the community care based model to be successful in providing adequate mental health treatment to those in need. [15]

Education

68% of state prison inmates did not receive a high school diploma. [16] Research indicates that schooling significantly reduces criminal activity. A significant portion of the effect of education on crime can be attributed to an increase in wages associated with schooling, suggesting that an increased level of education funding will result in decreased criminal activity. [17]

Counts based on prisoners with a sentence of more than 1 year. All estimates include persons under age 18. "Total" includes American Indians, Alaska Natives, Asians, Native Hawaiians, other Pacific Islanders, and persons identifying as two or more races. "Black" excludes persons of Hispanic or Latino origin. IncarcerationRates2010.png
  • Counts based on prisoners with a sentence of more than 1 year. All estimates include persons under age 18.
  • "Total" includes American Indians, Alaska Natives, Asians, Native Hawaiians, other Pacific Islanders, and persons identifying as two or more races.
  • "Black" excludes persons of Hispanic or Latino origin.

Factors involving race

There are many factors that have direct connections with the rises in the incarcerated population, many of which relate to structural and societal biases that exist in America today. As it relates directly to race, the practice of racial profiling regards policies and personal biases that target minority racial groups and contribute to a greater proportion of minorities being incarcerated compared to the general population. Currently, over sixty percent of inmates in the United States are people of color. [18] These practices have existed in the American Criminal Justice system for decades and although may have gained attention in recent years, still find ways to increase the likelihood of certain demographic groups receiving negative attention from the likes of law enforcement.

The war on drugs and longer prison sentences

Beginning in the Nixon administration, the war on drugs resulted in stricter drug laws including longer prison sentences for drug use and possession. [19] The Bureau of Justice Statistics reports that the drug offender population in federal prisons rose by 63% from 1998 to 2012 and they accounted for 52% of federal prisoners by 2012. [20] 35% of these drug offenders were not reoffenders or had minimal criminal backgrounds. [20]

In relation, mandatory minimum penalties have contributed to mass incarceration. The United States Sentencing Commission found that in 2016, 67.3% of offenders charged of a crime with a mandatory minimum penalty were convicted of a drug offense. [21] The commission also found that in 2016, the average sentence length was 110 months in prison compared to 28 months for those charged of a crime with no mandatory minimum penalty. [21]

Incarceration prevention

Incarceration prevention refers to a variety of methods aimed at reducing prison populations and costs while fostering enhanced social structures for the improvement of society. Incarceration prevention can take place in any of three stages: Primary Prevention, Diversion, or Recidivism Prevention.

Prevention

Primary prevention is an attempt to reduce the risk of behaviors that potentially lead to incarceration. The initial stage in this model includes looking at system wide or systemic approaches that ensure people have consistent social and structural interactions.

A 1% Decrease in the Unemployment Rate Relates to the Following Decreases in the Crime Rate [22]
Type of CrimePercentage Decrease in Crime
Property Crime1.6-2.4%
Violent Crime.5%
Burglary2%
Larceny1.5%
Auto Theft1%

Safety nets

Studies suggest that crime and violence are likely to be a byproduct of issues including economic inequality and poverty. [23] Economic theory shows how property crime and violent crimes may partly be consequences of excessive inequality and poverty. [23] Not only do crime rates increase with inequality, but propensity to commit crimes also increases with greater income inequality or poverty. [23] It follows that programs which elevate families out of poverty decrease behaviors associated with crime. National data indicates that a 10% increase in real wages lowers the crime index by 13%. [24]

Youth justice

Often, primary prevention can be viewed in the context of a school or vocational program in which there is a system of disciplinary action and reactions to behavioral issues. The goal is to institute preventive measures and different methods of support (i.e., restorative justice, restorative circles, proactive circles, and peer mediation) that encourage students/youth to meet the behavioral and academic standards set before them, without instituting harsh punitive measures that disengage students from educational and social resources provided within a school environment.[ citation needed ]

Diversion

Diversion is an attempt to circumvent incarceration and correct problem behaviors after an offense have been committed through alternatives to incarceration. This includes identifying those "most at risk" and setting in place additional supportive measures and strategies to provide opportunities for success.

In a school setting, this most often takes place after a young person has had multiple behavioral incidences within a short period of time and is at risk for more serious punitive measures. Steps for intervention may include (but are not limited to): additional counseling and support services, conflict resolution measures, peer-to-peer resolution groups, and engagement with community partners to provide additional services. The goal is to provide opportunities and support for those who show persistent behavioral issues, as they are most at-risk for future incarceration and/or legal trouble. [25]

Deferred sentencing and jail diversion

Including but not limited to:

  • Community Service: Community sentence or alternative sentencing or non-custodial sentence is a collective name in criminal justice for all the different ways, in which courts can punish someone convicted of committing an offense in ways other than prison terms.
  • Drug courts: Drug courts operate under a model that combines intensive judicial supervision, mandatory drug testing, escalating sanctions and treatment to help substance abusers break the cycle of addiction and the crime that accompanies it.
  • Mental health courts: Mental health courts link offenders who would ordinarily be prison-bound to long-term community-based treatment. They rely on mental health assessments, individualized treatment plans, and ongoing judicial monitoring to address both the mental health needs of offenders and public safety concerns of communities.
  • Domestic violence courts: Specialized domestic violence courts are designed to improve victim safety and enhance defendant accountability. They emerged as problem-solving courts in the 1980s and 1990s in response to frustration among victim advocates, judges and attorneys who saw the same litigants cycling through the justice system.
  • Problem-solving courts: Problem-solving courts address the underlying problems that contribute to criminal behavior and are a current trend in the legal system of the United States. There were over 2,800 problem-solving courts in 2008, intended to provide a method of resolving the problem in order to reduce recidivism.
  • Restorative justice: Restorative justice uses dialogue to address the harm that has been done rather than relying solely on jail time as a means of justice.
  • Electronic Monitoring: Electronic monitoring is a device that individuals under house arrest or parole are often required to wear. At timed intervals, the ankle monitor sends a radio frequency signal containing location and other information to a receiver. If an offender moves outside of an allowed range, the police will be notified.
  • Fines/Probation: A deferred prosecution agreement is a voluntary alternative to adjudication in which a prosecutor agrees to grant amnesty in exchange for the defendant agreeing to fulfill certain requirements. Fulfillment of the specified requirements will then result in dismissal of the charges.
  • Diversion programs: A diversion program in the criminal justice system is a form of sentencing and such programs are often run by a police department, court, a district attorney's office, or outside agency designed to enable offenders of criminal law to avoid criminal charges and a criminal record.

Recidivism prevention

Recidivism prevention takes place during incarceration and after release back into society. Its purpose is to reduce the risk of an individual reoffending and eventually returning into the prison system. National rates of recidivism over the last three decades have remained relatively steady at approximately 43 percent. [26] The recommendations provided by the "Report of the Re-Entry Policy Council" coordinated by the "Council of State Governments" reflect the opportunities available for action by entities interested in reducing recidivism. According to the report, there are steps policy makers or practitioners should complete in order to ensure successful programs, such as collaboration, proper funding, system integration, and educating the public. The report also states that policy makers must also consider additional programming needs for incoming offenders, including intake procedures, physical and mental health care, drug treatment, and vocational training. Finally, the report emphasizes the need to address changes in social service delivery, such as housing, workforce development, treatment programs, and mental and physical healthcare systems. [27]

Prison reform

Prison reform seeks to advocate for programming that gives offenders the tools they need for success. Physical and mental health, drug treatment, and educational and vocational programming give offenders the opportunity to begin the process of returning to their communities to become contributing members before they leave the facility.

Prisoner reentry initiatives

The overall purpose of such programs is to provide options, support, and opportunities for prisoners returning home into communities. The goal of preventing crime and reducing recidivism is attained through support programs including vocational and educational programs that provide returning citizens with the skills necessary to succeed in their reintegrated lives. The programs typically start by assessing strengths and risk factors through assessments when offenders begin their sentences, effective support and a plan for success that includes community support, and different strategies to help remediate skill and social deficiencies typically experienced by returning citizens. [28]

Juvenile confinement rates on steady decline

A study published by the Pew Institute found that there has been a significant decline in at least 37 states for juvenile commitment and violent crime arrest rates between 1997 and 2010. [29] These decreases in juvenile commitments can be a result of many different factors, including unique programs like the Ohio RECLAIM (Reasonable Equitable Community and Local Alternatives to the Incarceration of Minors) program. This program provides financial incentives that encourage juvenile courts to find and develop community based strategies and programs options that seek to meet the needs of juvenile offenders or at risk offenders. [30] This program works to focus the most critical resources for the most serious offenders, such as those committing violent crimes and the most serious of offenses, while encouraging courts to look into community and restorative program placements for the youth who commit crimes not fitting such severe categories. As a result, Ohio has seen a significant decrease in institutional crowding and an 80% decrease in Department of Youth Services (DYS) caseloads from its peak in 1997 to 2012.

See also

Related Research Articles

Incarceration in the United States Form of punishment in United States law

Incarceration in the United States is a primary form of punishment and rehabilitation for the commission of felony and other offenses. The United States has the largest prison population in the world, and the highest per-capita incarceration rate. One out of every 5 people imprisoned across the world is incarcerated in the United States. In 2018 in the US, there were 698 people incarcerated per 100,000; this includes the incarceration rate for adults or people tried as adults. In 2016, 2.2 million Americans were incarcerated, which means for every 100,000 there are 655 who are currently inmates. Prison, parole, and probation operations generate an $81 billion annual cost to U.S. taxpayers, whith an additional $63 billion for policing. Court costs, bail bond fees, and prison phone fees generate another $38 billion in individual costs.

Recidivism Person repeating an undesirable behavior following punishment

Recidivism is the act of a person repeating an undesirable behavior after they have experienced negative consequences of that behavior. It is also used to refer to the percentage of former prisoners who are rearrested for a similar offense.

Probation and parole officer Officials who supervise the conduct of offenders on community supervision

A probation and parole officer is an official appointed to investigate, report on, and supervise the conduct of convicted offenders on probation or those released from incarceration to community supervision such as parole. Most probation and parole officers are employed by the government of the jurisdiction in which they operate, although some are employed by private companies that provide contracted services to the government.

Rehabilitation (penology) Process to make a person again a functional part of society

Rehabilitation is the process of re-educating and retraining those who commit crime. It generally involves psychological approaches which target the cognitive distortions associated with specific kinds of crime committed by particular offenders – but may also involve more general education such as literacy skills and work training. The goal is to re-integrate offenders back into society.

American juvenile justice system Aspect of American justice system

The American juvenile justice system is the primary system used to handle minors who are convicted of criminal offenses. The system is composed of a federal and many separate state, territorial, and local jurisdictions, with states and the federal government sharing sovereign police power under the common authority of the United States Constitution. The juvenile justice system intervenes in delinquent behavior through police, court, and correctional involvement, with the goal of rehabilitation. Youth and their guardians can face a variety of consequences including probation, community service, youth court, youth incarceration and alternative schooling. The juvenile justice system, similar to the adult system, operates from a belief that intervening early in delinquent behavior will deter adolescents from engaging in criminal behavior as adults.

Second Chance Act (2007)

The Second Chance Act of 2007, titled "To reauthorize the grant program for reentry of offenders into the community in the Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act of 1968, to improve reentry planning and implementation, and for other purposes," was submitted to the House by Representative Danny Davis (D-IL) to amend the Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act of 1968 to reauthorize, rewrite, and expand provisions for adult and juvenile offender state and local reentry demonstration projects to provide expanded services to offenders and their families for reentry into society. H.R. 1593 was signed into law April 9, 2008.

Prison Institution in which people are legally physically confined

A prison, also known as a jail or gaol, penitentiary, detention center, correction center, correctional facility, lock-up, hoosegow or remand center, is a facility in which inmates are confined against their will and usually denied a variety of freedoms under the authority of the state as punishment for various crimes. Prisons are most commonly used within a criminal justice system: people charged with crimes may be imprisoned until their trial; those pleading or being found guilty of crimes at trial may be sentenced to a specified period of imprisonment. In simplest terms, a prison can also be described as a building in which people are legally held as a punishment for a crime they have committed.

The National Criminal Justice Association (NCJA) is a Washington, D.C. based organization that represents a variety of local, state, and tribal governments on crime prevention and control issues. The organization primarily works as a public policy liaison that promotes understanding of the best criminal justice practices between federal and state governments.

Youth incarceration in the United States

The United States incarcerates more of its youth than any other country in the world through the juvenile courts and the adult criminal justice system, which reflects the larger trends in incarceration practices in the United States. In 2010, approximately 70,800 juveniles were incarcerated in youth detention facilities alone. As of 2006, approximately 500,000 youth were brought to detention centers in a given year. This data does not reflect juveniles tried as adults. As of 2013, around 40% were incarcerated in privatized, for-profit facilities.

Alternatives to imprisonment Types of punishment or treatment other than time in prison

The alternatives to imprisonment are types of punishment or treatment other than time in prison that can be given to a person who is convicted of committing a crime. Some of these are also known as alternative sanctions. Alternatives can take the form of fines, restorative justice, transformative justice or no punishment at all. Capital punishment, corporal punishment and electronic monitoring are also alternatives to imprisonment, but are not promoted by modern prison reform movements for decarceration due to them being carceral in nature.

Prison overcrowding is a social phenomenon occurring when the demand for space in prisons in a jurisdiction exceeds the capacity for prisoners. The issues associated with prison overcrowding are not new, and have been brewing for many years. During the United States' War on Drugs, the states were left responsible for solving the prison overcrowding issue with a limited amount of money. Moreover, federal prison populations may increase if states adhere to federal policies, such as mandatory minimum sentences. On the other hand, the Justice Department provides billions of dollars a year for state and local law enforcement to ensure they follow the policies set forth by the federal government concerning U.S. prisons. Prison overcrowding has affected some states more than others, but overall, the risks of overcrowding are substantial and there are solutions to this problem.

Infectious diseases within American correctional settings are a concern within the public health sector. The corrections population is susceptible to infectious diseases through exposure to blood and other bodily fluids, drug injection, poor health care, prison overcrowding, demographics, security issues, lack of community support for rehabilitation programs, and high-risk behaviors. The spread of infectious diseases, such as HIV and other sexually transmitted diseases, hepatitis C (HCV), hepatitis B (HBV), and tuberculosis, result largely from needle-sharing, drug use, and consensual and non-consensual sex among prisoners. HIV and hepatitis C need specific attention because of the specific public health concerns and issues they raise.

Criminal justice reform in the United States

Criminal justice reform addresses structural issues in criminal justice systems such as racial profiling, police brutality, overcriminalization, mass incarceration, and recidivism. Reforms can take place at any point where the criminal justice system intervenes in citizens’ lives, including lawmaking, policing, sentencing and incarceration. Criminal justice reform can also address the collateral consequences of conviction, including disenfranchisement or lack of access to housing or employment, that may restrict the rights of individuals with criminal records.

Mentally ill people are overrepresented in United States jail and prison populations relative to the general population. There are three times more seriously mentally ill persons in jails and prisons than in hospitals in the United States. The exact cause of this overrepresentation is disputed by scholars; proposed causes include the deinstitutionalization of mentally ill individuals in the mid-twentieth century; inadequate community mental health treatment resources; and the criminalization of mental illness itself. The majority of prisons in the United States employ a psychiatrist and a psychologist. While much research claims mentally ill offenders have comparable rates of recidivism to non-mentally ill offenders, other research claims that mentally ill offenders have higher rates of recidivism. Mentally ill people experience solitary confinement at disproportionate rates and are more vulnerable to its adverse psychological effects. Twenty-five states have laws addressing the emergency detention of the mentally ill within jails, and the United States Supreme Court has upheld the right of inmates to mental health treatment.

Gender-responsive prisons are prisons constructed to provide gender-specific care to incarcerated women. Contemporary sex-based prison programs were presented as a solution to the rapidly increasing number of women in the prison industrial complex and the overcrowding of California's prisons. These programs vary in intent and implementation and are based on the idea that female offenders differ from their male counterparts in their personal histories and pathways to crime. Multi-dimensional programs oriented toward female behaviors are considered by many to be effective in curbing recidivism.

People in prison are more likely than the general United States population to have received a mental disorder diagnosis, and women in prison have higher rates of mental illness and mental health treatment than do men in prison. Furthermore, women in prisons are three times more likely than the general population to report poor physical and mental health. Women are the fastest growing demographic of the United States prison population. As of 2019, there are about 222,500 women incarcerated in state and federal prisons in the United States. Women comprise roughly 8% of all inmates in the United States.

Prisoner reentry is the process by which prisoners who have been released return to the community. Many types of programs have been implemented with the goal of reducing recidivism and have been found to be effective for this purpose. Consideration for the conditions of the communities formerly incarcerated individuals are re-entering, which are often disadvantaged, is a fundamental part of successful re-entry.

Norway's criminal justice system focuses on the principles of restorative justice and the rehabilitation of prisoners. Correctional facilities in Norway focus on maintaining custody of the offender and attempting to make them a functioning member of society. Norway's laws forbid the use of torture and other cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment as punishment. Prison conditions typically meet international standards, and the government permits visits by any human rights observers. The system is considered to be transparent, and prisoners are represented by an ombudsman, an official appointed to investigate individuals’ complaints against public authority.

The United States has experienced an increase in the number of people incarcerated that have an opioid addiction. It is estimated that there is around 7 million people incarcerated in the United States. Over half of them meet the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders criteria for drug abuse or dependence and only 20% receive treatment. To alleviate the problem, the Department of Corrections has implemented different treatment plans for those who are suffering with an opioid addiction.

Decarceration in the United States Overview article

Decarceration in the United States involves government policies and community campaigns aimed at reducing the number of people held in custody or custodial supervision. Decarceration, the opposite of incarceration, also entails reducing the rate of imprisonment at the federal, state and municipal level. Home to 5% of the global population but 25% of its prisoners, the U.S. possess the world's highest incarceration rate: 655 inmates for every 100,000 people, enough inmates to equal the populations of Philadelphia or Houston. The COVID-19 pandemic has reinvigorated the discussion surrounding decarceration as the spread of the virus poses a threat to the health of those incarcerated in prisons and detention centers where the ability to properly socially distance is limited.

References

  1. ↑ Kamala Kane; Barbara Parthasarathy (2012). Examining growth in the federal prison population, 1998 to 2010 (PDF). Washington, D.C.: Urban Institute. Retrieved 24 February 2014.
  2. ↑ Kyckelhahn, Tracey (December 2011). Justice Expenditures and Employment, FY 1982-2007 (PDF). Bureau of Justice Statistics.
  3. ↑ "National Center for Juvenile Justice". Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP), Office of Justice Programs, U.S. Department of Justice. Retrieved 24 February 2014.
  4. ↑ Lauren Glaze; Erinn Herberman. "Correctional Populations in the United States, 2012" (PDF). Office of Justice Programs Bureau of Justice Statistics Bulletin. U.S. Department of Justice. Retrieved 24 February 2014.
  5. ↑ Christian Henrichson; Ruth Delaney (January 2012). The Price of Prisons: What Incarceration Costs Taxpayers (PDF). New York: The VERA Institute of Justice Center on Sentencing and Corrections. Retrieved 24 February 2014.
  6. ↑ SpearIt (1 January 2014). "Economic Interest Convergence in Downsizing Imprisonment". Rochester, NY: Social Science Research Network. SSRN   2608698.{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  7. 1 2 Walmsley, Roy (2015). "World Prison Population List (Eleventh Edition)" (PDF). World Prison Brief. Institute For Criminal Policy Research. Retrieved 25 November 2017.
  8. ↑ Federal Bureau of Prisons, Justice Department (2016). "Annual Determination of Average Cost of Incarceration". Federal Register. Retrieved 25 November 2017.
  9. ↑ Stemen, Don (January 2007). Reconsidering Incarceration: New Directions for Reducing Crime (PDF). VERA Institute of Justice Center on Sentencing and Corrections. p. 8. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 June 2016. Retrieved 25 February 2014.
  10. 1 2 Shoveling Up II: The Impact of Substance Abuse on Federal, State and Local Budgets. New York, NY: The National Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse at Columbia University. May 2009.
  11. ↑ Wachendorfer, Allan (2013). "Casualties of the Drug War". Senior Honors Thesis (Paper 361).
  12. ↑ "Is drug addiction treatment worth its cost?". National Institute on Drug Abuse.
  13. ↑ Doris James; Lauren Glaze (September 2006). Bureau of Justice Statistics Special Report: Mental Health Problems of Prison and Jail Inmates (PDF). U.S. Department of Justice Office of Justice Programs. Retrieved 25 February 2014.
  14. ↑ "Funding for Mental Health Services and Programs". Judge David L. Bazelon Center for Mental Health Law. Archived from the original on 31 December 2014. Retrieved 22 January 2020.
  15. ↑ NAMI - State Mental Health Cuts : A National Crisis http://www.nami.org/ContentManagement/ContentDisplay.cfm?ContentFileID=126233 Archived 16 February 2014 at the Wayback Machine
  16. ↑ Bureau of Justice Statistics Special Report: Education and Correctional Populations (PDF). U.S. Department of Justice Office of Justice Programs. January 2003.
  17. ↑ Lance Lochner; Enrico Moretti (October 2003). The E®ect of Education on Crime: Evidence from Prison Inmates, Arrests, and Self-Reports (PDF). Retrieved 25 February 2014.
  18. ↑ "The Top 10 Most Startling Facts About People of Color and Criminal Justice in the United States". 13 March 2012.
  19. ↑ Travis, Jeremy; Western, Bruce; Redburn, F. Stevens (2014). The Growth of Incarceration in the United States: Exploring Causes and Consequences. Washington, D.C.: The National Academic Press. pp. 118–121. Retrieved 27 November 2017.
  20. 1 2 Taxy, Sam; Samuels, Julie; Adams, William (2015). "Drug Offenders in Federal Prison: Estimates of Characteristics Based on Linked Data" (PDF). Bureau of Justice Statistics. Retrieved 27 November 2017.
  21. 1 2 United States Sentencing Commission (2017). "An Overview of Mandatory Minimum Penalties in the Federal Criminal Justice System" (PDF). Retrieved 27 November 2017.
  22. ↑ "Effective Investments in Public Safety Unemployment, Wages, and the Crime Rate" (PDF). Justice Policy Institute. Retrieved 16 March 2014.
  23. 1 2 3 Bourguignon, F. (2001). "10". Facets of globalization international and local dimensions of development (print). Washington, DC: The World Bank. ISBN   0-8213-4742-X . Retrieved 25 February 2014.
  24. ↑ Stemen, Don (April 2007). "New Directions for Reducing Crime". Federal Sentencing Reporter. 19 (4): 221–233. doi:10.1525/fsr.2007.19.4.221. JSTOR   10.1525/fsr.2007.19.4.221.
  25. ↑ EDJ Model: Secondary http://www.edjj.org/prevention/LevelsPrevention.html
  26. ↑ State of Recidivism April 2011 The Revolving Door of America's Prisons (PDF). The Pew Center on States. April 2011. p. 2. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 October 2012. Retrieved 1 March 2014.
  27. ↑ Schrantz, Dennis (April 2007). "Coordinating Community Development: The Heart of the Michigan Prisoner ReEntry Initiative". Corrections Today Magazine. www.aca.org/. 69 (2): 42–49.
  28. ↑ Washtenaw Prisoner Re-Entry Program.http://washtenawprisonerreentry.org/contactus.htm
  29. ↑ "Latest Data Show Juvenile Confinement Continues Rapid Decline". The Pew Charitable Trust State and Consumer Initiatives. Retrieved 25 February 2014.
  30. ↑ "Ohio Reclaim". Ohio Department of Youth Services. Retrieved 25 February 2014.
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