Northern two-lined salamander

Last updated

Northern two-lined salamander
Northern Two-lined Salamander Eurycea bislineata.jpg
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Amphibia
Order: Urodela
Family: Plethodontidae
Genus: Eurycea
Species:
E. bislineata
Binomial name
Eurycea bislineata
(Green, 1818)
Eurycea bislineata map.svg
Range of E. bislineata
Synonyms
  • Salamandra bislineata Green, 1818

The northern two-lined salamander (Eurycea bislineata) is a species of salamander in the family Plethodontidae found in Canada and the United States. [2] Its natural habitats are temperate forests, temperate shrubland, rivers, intermittent rivers, freshwater marshes, freshwater springs, arable land, and urban areas. It is more water-oriented than the related northern redback salamander, and can often be found in and around water such as rain puddles, streams, swamps, and damp stream beds, whereas the northern redback tends to be found in damp ground, but usually not near open water.

Contents

Description

The northern two-lined salamander is a small salamander, with adults ranging from 65–120 mm in total length. [3] This salamander is yellow or yellowish-brown, with two black stripes running down the back which tends to break up after the base of the tail. The flanks are mottled grayish or brown. [4] The belly is pale yellowish, nearly transparent. There are four toes on the fore feet and five toes on the hind feet. [5] On the side of the body are 14–16 costal grooves. [3]

Habitat and distribution

This species prefers small rocky streams or seeps in forests, but may occur in moist areas far from running water. [3] Also, some data suggest this species may be found on stony shores of small lakes and rivers. [6] Northern two-lined salamanders are found throughout northeastern North America, ranging from central and southern Quebec, New Brunswick, northeastern Ontario, and the northeastern United States, from central Virginia and Ohio northwards to the Great Lakes. [3] [4] Compared to many other species in the genus Eurycea, E. bislineata has a large geographic distribution. [3]

Reproduction

The reproductive strategy of the northern two-lined salamander begins with an elaborate courtship. It may take place from September (in the southern parts of its range) to May (in the north). [3] Observations of courtship in the species were made based on individuals held in captivity by Noble (1929), and a summary of these observations are: the male becomes restless, as if searching for a female. Upon finding the female, he will lift her by pushing his snout under her cloacal region or chest. The male adopts a distinct posture, bending his body laterally around her snout. The pair may remain in this position for an hour or more. The female eventually slips out of this posture and begins to straddle the male's tail with her fore limbs, while pressing her chin against the base of the male's tail. The male may undulate his tail from side to side in a slow and exaggerated manner, and the female moves her head from side to side, alternately from the male's tail. This tail-straddling walk may last for over an hour, at which point the male deposits a spermatophore, leading the female to walk over it, at which time she may either accept or reject the male's sperm. [7] The spermatophore of this species is described as conical, 2.5 mm in height and with a colorless stalk that tapers towards the tip. [8]

This species exhibits sexual dimorphism in the shape of the premaxillary teeth. The teeth of breeding males are unicuspid and elongated when compared to the shorter bicuspid teeth of the females. [3] These enlarged teeth are used to help abrade the female's skin and introduce the secretions on the males mental gland, found on the chin, into her circulatory system, which stimulates her to mate. [9] Prior to egg laying, the female searches for a suitable oviposition site in the stream. Nest sites are frequently under rocks, sometimes logs, and perhaps vegetation. [3] Research done in the Georgia Piedmont on the closely related E. cirrigera, indicate that 65% of nests found were under cobbles (2.5 to 30 cm), 16% were under boulders (greater that 30 cm), and 19% were under slate tiles (30x30x1 cm), which were added to the stream experimentally. [10] To deposit eggs on the under surface of a rock, the female must flip on her back to make cloacal contact with the substrate. Three minutes is required to lay each egg in this manner, and up to several hours to lay an entire clutch. [3] The eggs, when freshly laid appear white or pale yellowish, and each egg is 2.5–3 mm in diameter and is surrounded by two distinct membranes. [11] Communal nesting in northern two-lined salamanders has been documented on several occasions and localities; New York, [12] [13] in Ontario, [14] and likely in Ohio. [11]

Larval ecology

Upon hatching, the gilled larvae are about 10 mm long, and remain in slow-moving pools, or less frequently, hiding in crevices between rocks and boulders in swift-flowing streams. [15] The larvae do not begin feeding until their yolk sacs are reabsorbed, at which point they begin to feed on benthic invertebrates by prowling the bottom of the stream. Typical prey items for northern two-lined salamander larvae include chironomid larvae and other dipteran larvae, stonefly larvae, cladocera, and copepods. [3] Predators of the larvae are many, such as fish, crayfish, and other salamander larvae, such as the larger northern spring salamander (Gyrinophilus porphyriticus). [5] The larval period of E. bislineata is variable depending on latitude. In the southern portion of their range, such as New York, metamorphosis occurs at 50 mm total length or two years old, while further north, such as in Quebec and likely Ontario, metamorphosis takes place at nearly 70 mm total length, or three years old. [16] The larvae over-winter in deeper pools not prone to freezing. [3]

Adult ecology

Once the larvae reach their maximum size, metamorphosis occurs. Sexual maturity is reached in this species at three to four years old. [3] The adults and juveniles tend to be restricted to the stream edges, hiding under rocks and other debris during the day. [17] Seasonal migration does occur, but not all individuals undertake them. Research done in Quebec suggests a postbreeding migration into the forest occurs in June. These adult salamanders may move over 100 m from the stream. The second migration is that of the newly metamorphosed juveniles leaving the stream, but they tend to remain closer to it. About 75% of individuals dispersing over 100 m into the forest did not return, and they were believed to have been consumed by predators. The majority of above-ground movements are made after dark and in wet weather. [18] The diets of the adults are more wide-ranging than the larvae because of the amount of habitat that can be exploited, both terrestrial and aquatic. The movements of juveniles and adults usually occurs in the first hour after dark, when they emerge from under their retreats and forage along the stream bank or forest floor. Food items recorded include wood roaches, arachnids, worms, isopods, millipedes, centipedes, [19] beetles, snails, springtails, flies, hymenopterans, sowbugs, mayflies, annelids, stonefly nymphs, and thrips and rarely trout fry. [20] Adult population densities are variable by habitat quality. Adults are also territorial, so if resources are scarce, the population is less dense. In some populations, densities are as low as 0.02-0.04 animals/m2. [21] In other areas, localized densities can be as high as 11 individuals /m2. [22] Adults overwinter up to 80 cm deep into the soil of the stream bank in cold climates, but may remain somewhat active in southern regions, and may continue feeding during this period. [3]

Predators and defense

Because of its small size and localized distribution around streams, the northern two-lined salamander is preyed upon by a variety of animals. Predators include birds, such as the eastern screech owl (Otus asio), snakes such as the eastern garter snakes (Thamnophis sirtalis) and ringneck snakes (Diadophis punctatus). Other important predators of the northern two-lined salamander larvae are other salamanders, such as the large, stream-dwelling larvae of the northern spring salamander (Gyrinophilus porphyriticus) and the blackbelly salamander (Desmognathus quadramaculatus). [3] Response to a predator is variable in E. bislineata . Some individuals, when confronted with a garter snake, will remain motionless when contacted by the head of the snake, but would engage in a protean flip, where the tail is held over the body when contacted by the snake's tongue. [23] Tail autotomy is common in E. bislineata , as a result of a struggle with a predator. Losing part of the tail increases the likelihood of surviving the encounter with a predator. In some populations, up to 32% of animals had autotomized tails. [3]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Amphibian</span> Class of ectothermic tetrapods

Amphibians are four-limbed and ectothermic vertebrates of the class Amphibia. All living amphibians belong to the group Lissamphibia. They inhabit a wide variety of habitats, with most species living within terrestrial, fossorial, arboreal or freshwater aquatic ecosystems. Thus amphibians typically start out as larvae living in water, but some species have developed behavioural adaptations to bypass this.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Plethodontidae</span> Family of amphibians

Plethodontidae, or lungless salamanders, are a family of salamanders. Most species are native to the Western Hemisphere, from British Columbia to Brazil, although a few species are found in Sardinia, mainland Europe south of the Alps, and South Korea. In terms of number of species, they are by far the largest group of salamanders.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Eastern newt</span> Species of amphibian

The eastern newt is a common newt of eastern North America. It frequents small lakes, ponds, and streams or nearby wet forests. The eastern newt produces tetrodotoxin, which makes the species unpalatable to predatory fish and crayfish. It has a lifespan of 12 to 15 years in the wild, and it may grow to 5 in (13 cm) in length. These animals are common aquarium pets, being either collected from the wild or sold commercially. The striking bright orange juvenile stage, which is land-dwelling, is known as a red eft. Some sources blend the general name of the species and that of the red-spotted newt subspecies into the eastern red-spotted newt.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Brook salamander</span> Genus of amphibians

Brook salamanders are a genus, Eurycea, of salamanders native to North America.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Texas blind salamander</span> Species of amphibian

The Texas blind salamander is a rare and endangered cave-dwelling troglobite amphibian native to San Marcos, Hays County, Texas, specifically the San Marcos Pool of the Edwards Aquifer. This species resembles the olm, another stygofaunal salamander from Europe. Unlike the olm, this amphibian's body is not as elongated, and also has less reduced digits on its limbs.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Santa Cruz long-toed salamander</span> Subspecies of amphibian

The Santa Cruz long-toed salamander is an endangered subspecies of the long-toed salamander, which is found only close to a few isolated ponds in Santa Cruz and Monterey Counties in California. It has a black body, broken yellow or orange irregular striping along its spine, and a tail fin well evolved for swimming. Like other mole salamanders, it is found near pools or slow-moving streams and has a very secretive lifestyle, making it difficult to find.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Marbled salamander</span> Species of amphibian

The marbled salamander is a species of mole salamander found in the eastern United States.

The northern banana salamander, also known as common dwarf salamander or rufescent salamander, is a species of salamander in the family Plethodontidae. It is found in the Atlantic slopes of Meso-America from San Luis Potosi, Veracruz, and northern Chiapas in Mexico continuing on to the southern part of Guatemala, Belize, and northern Honduras. However, its range south of Mexico is uncertain because the records may refer to other species.

<i>Desmognathus fuscus</i> Species of amphibian

Desmognathus fuscus is a species of amphibian in the family Plethodontidae. The species is commonly called the dusky salamander or northern dusky salamander to distinguish it from populations in the southern United States which form several distinct species, the southern dusky salamanders. The northern dusky salamander is the most widespread representative of its genus in Canada. It can be found in eastern North America from extreme eastern Canada in New Brunswick south to South Carolina. The size of the species' total population is unknown, but is assumed to easily exceed 100,000. The species' habitat differs somewhat geographically; dusky salamanders in the northern part of the range prefer rocky woodland streams, seepages, and springs, while those in the south favor floodplains, sloughs, and muddy places along upland streams. They are most common where water is running or trickling. They hide under various objects, such as leaves or rocks, either in or near water. Alternatively, they may enter burrows for protection. The dusky salamander lays its eggs close to water under moss or rocks, in logs, or in stream-bank cavities. The larval stage which follows is normally aquatic.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ocoee salamander</span> Species of amphibian

The ocoee salamander is a species of salamander in the family Plethodontidae. This salamander has a variety of colors and patterns, and got its name from Tennessee state wildflower. Its natural habitats are temperate forests, rivers, intermittent rivers, freshwater springs and wet rocks in mountainous areas of the Southeastern United States. It was first described by Nicholls in 1949. They are territorial and feed on small invertebrates. It is widely distributed in the southeastern United States and is listed as "Least Concern" by the International Union for Conservation of Nature.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pygmy salamander</span> Species of amphibian

The pygmy salamander is a species of salamander in the family Plethodontidae. It is endemic to the United States in the southern Appalachians in North Carolina and Tennessee. Desmognathus wrighti is a member of the family Plethodontidae and is commonly known as the pygmy salamander. As the name suggest the pygmy salamander is the smallest of the nineteen species in the genus Desmognathus. D. wrighti undergoes direct development and does not have a free-living larval stage. Only two other taxa in Desmognathus, D. aeneus and D. organi, exhibit direct development along with the pygmy salamander. In the genus Desmognathus, body size, habitat preferences, and patterns used by males during courtship are quite variable. D. wrighti courtship is noted by the male biting and seizing its partner in order to provide them with a chemical stimulus. The pygmy salamander can be found in the southern Appalachians of the United States in western North Carolina and eastern Tennessee. Geographical distribution of the Desmognathus wrighti is fragmented and the highest abundance of the species can be found at high elevations in spruce and fir tree forest.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Southern two-lined salamander</span> Species of amphibian

The southern two-lined salamander is a species of salamander in the family Plethodontidae, endemic to the United States. Its natural habitats are temperate forests, rivers, intermittent rivers, swamps, and freshwater springs.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Junaluska salamander</span> Species of amphibian

The Junaluska salamander is a species of lungless salamander native to the south-eastern United States. It was first described by David M. Sever, Harold M. Dundee, and Charles D. Sullivan who found the species in the range from the Cheoah River, Santeetlah Creek, and Tululah Creek in Graham County of North Carolina. Adults of this species can be found near large, rocky streams and on rainy nights on roads in the areas specified. The salamander is characterized by brownish-yellow coloration with a series of small dots along the body and a robust build compared to the other salamanders in Eurycea. The Junaluska salamander's breeding habits tend to be in large streams where the eggs are laid and attached to the bottom of rocks in the streams where they are found. According to the overall conservation listing for IUCN, this species is listed as Vulnerable. Conservation acts are important in both North Carolina and Eastern Tennessee, since the population of this species in each state is so small.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Blue Ridge two-lined salamander</span> Species of amphibian

The Blue Ridge two-lined salamander is a species of salamander in the family Plethodontidae, endemic to the United States. This species is found in the southern Appalachian Mountains, mostly south of Virginia. To the north is a similar salamander, Eurycea bislineata, or the northern two-lined salamander. Its genus, Eurycea contains 33 species and includes taxa that have either a metamorphic life cycle or larval-form paedomorphosis. In species that metamorphose, there can be within-and among-population variation in larval life-history characteristics, e.g., duration of the larval period and size at metamorphosis. Intraspecific geographic variation in species of Eurycea has been attributed to several factors: temperature, stream order and productivity of the larval habitat.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Spring salamander</span> Species of amphibian

The spring salamander is a species of salamander in the family Plethodontidae. It is found in Canada and the United States. The genus, Gyrinophilus, means "tadpole lover" and refers to the long period of time it spends as a gilled larva before maturing. The specific epithet, porphyriticus, is Latin from Greek, meaning the color of porphyry, a purple stone, and this salamander has also been called the purple salamander.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Red salamander</span> Species of amphibian

The red salamander is a species of salamander in the family Plethodontidae endemic to the eastern United States. Its skin is orange/red with random black spots. Its habitats are temperate forests, small creeks, ponds, forests, temperate shrubland, rivers, intermittent rivers, freshwater, trees springs. Overall this species is common and widespread, but locally it has declined because of habitat loss and it is considered threatened in Indiana. Red salamanders eat insects, earthworms, spiders, small crustaceans, snails, and smaller salamanders. To eat, they extend their tongue to capture prey on the tip of it and retract it back into their mouths. The red salamander, as a member of the family Plethodontidae, lacks lungs and respires through its skin.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Green salamander</span> Species of amphibian

The green salamander is a species of lungless salamander in the family Plethodontidae. It and the Hickory Nut Gorge green salamander are the only currently-described members of the genus Aneides that inhabit any areas in the eastern half of United States. Rarely seen in the field, the green salamander is an extremely habitat-specific species that is seldom found away from its preferred surroundings: moist, shaded rock crevices.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Spotted-tail salamander</span> Species of amphibian

The spotted-tail salamander, also known as a "cave salamander", is a species of brook salamander.

The brownback salamander is a species of brook salamander. Its range includes parts of Alabama, Georgia, and Tennessee, where it occurs in natural freshwater springs typically abundant in watercress. Once considered an ecotype of the southern two-lined salamander, the brownback salamander was subsequently raised to full species status based on molecular evidence.

The Carolina Sandhills salamander, is a species of lungless salamander endemic to the state of North Carolina in the United States, where it is only found in the Sandhills region. These species are known for their coloration and ecology. Researchers decades ago separated the species into northern and southern groups and found that the southern and northern Sandhill salamanders differ in coloration, size, and natural history.

References

  1. ↑ Geoffrey Hammerson (2004). "Eurycea bislineata". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . 2004: e.T59261A11907793. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2004.RLTS.T59261A11907793.en . Retrieved 16 November 2021.
  2. ↑ Frost, Darrel R. (2014). "Eurycea bislineata (Green, 1818)". Amphibian Species of the World: an Online Reference. Version 6.0. American Museum of Natural History. Retrieved 1 March 2015.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Petranka, J.W. (1998). Salamanders of the United States and Canada. Smithsonian Institution Press. pp. 587.
  4. 1 2 MacCulloch, R.D. (2002). The ROM field guide to amphibians and reptiles of Ontario. Royal Ontario Museum, McClelland and Stewart, Toronto, Ontario. pp.168.
  5. 1 2 Harding, J.H. (1997). Amphibians and reptiles of the great lakes region. University of Michigan Press. pp. 327.
  6. ↑ Cook, F. (1984). Introduction aux amphibiens et reptiles du Canada. Musee Nationaux du Canada. Ottawa. pp. 211
  7. ↑ Noble, G.K. (1929). The relationship of courtship to the secondary sexual characteristic of the two-lined salamander. American Museum Novitates 362:1-5.
  8. ↑ Organ, J.A. and L.A. Lowenthal. (1963). Comparative studies of macroscopic and microscopic features of spermatophores of some plethodontid salamanders. Copeia 1963:659-669.
  9. ↑ Kozak, K.H. (2003). Sexual isolation and courtship behavior in salamanders of the Eurycea bislineata species complex, with comments on the evolution on the evolution of the mental gland and pheromone delivery behavior in the Plethodontidae. Southeastern Naturalist 2:281-292
  10. ↑ Guy,C.J., R.E. Ratajczak, G.D. Grossman. 2004. Nest-site selection by southern two-lined salamanders (Eurycea cirrigera) in the Georgia Piedmont. Southeastern Naturalist. 3:75-88.
  11. 1 2 Baumann, Walter L.; Huels, Michael (1982). "Nests of the two-lined salamander (Eurycea bislineata bislineata)". Journal of Herpetology. 16 (1): 81–83. doi:10.2307/1563908. JSTOR   1563908.
  12. ↑ Bishop, S. C. 1941. Salamanders of New York. New York State Museum Bulletin. 324: 1-365
  13. ↑ Wood, J. T., and N. H. McCutcheon (1954). Ovarian egg complements and the nests of the Two-lined Salamander Eurycea b. bislineata × cirrigera, from southeastern Virginia. American Midland Naturalist 52: 433-436
  14. ↑ LeGros, D.L. (2012). Communal Oviposition in the Northern Two-lined Salamander (Eurycea bislineata) in Algonquin Provincial Park, Ontario. The Canadian Field-Naturalist 125:363-365
  15. ↑ Barr, G.E. and K.J. Babbitt (2002). Effects of biotic and abiotic factors of the distribution and abundance of larval two-lined salamanders (Eurycea bislineata) across spatial scales. Oecologica 133:176-185
  16. ↑ Trapido, H. and R.T. Clausen (1940). The larvae of Eurycea bislineata major. Copeia 1940:244-246.
  17. ↑ Crocker,J.B., M.S. Bank, C.S. Loftin, R.E. Jung Brown (2007). Influence of observers and stream flow on northern two-lined salamander (Eurycea bislineata bislineata) relative abundance estimates in Acadia and Shenandoah National Parks, USA. Journal of Herpetology 41: 325-329
  18. ↑ MacCulloch, R.D. and J.R. Bider. (1975). Phenology, migrations, circadian rhythm and the effect of precipitation on the activity of (Eurycea bislineata bislineata) in Quebec. Herpetologica 31:433-439.
  19. ↑ "Eurycea bislineata (Northern Two-lined Salamander)". Animal Diversity Web .
  20. ↑ Holomuzki, J.R. (1980). Synchronous foraging and dietary overalp of three species of Plethodontid salamanders. Herpetologica 36(2):109-115.
  21. ↑ Burton, T.M. and G.E. Likens (1975). Salamander populations and biomass in the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest, New Hampshire. Copeia 975:54.
  22. ↑ Stewart, M.M. (1968). Population dynamics of Eurycea bislineata in New York. Journal of Herpetology 2:176-177.
  23. ↑ Ducey, P.K. and E.D. Brodie. (1983). Salamanders respond selectively to contacts with snakes: survival advantages of alternative antipredator strategies. Copeia 1983:1036-1041
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.