Old World vulture

Last updated
Old World vultures
Temporal range: Miocene-Holocene [1] 20.4–0  Ma
Gyps africanus Torgos tracheliotus.jpg
Lappet-faced vultures (left) and a white-backed vulture
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Accipitriformes
Family: Accipitridae
Groups included

Old World vultures are vultures that are found in the Old World, i.e. the continents of Europe, Asia and Africa, and which belong to the family Accipitridae, which also includes eagles, buzzards, kites, and hawks.

Contents

Old World vultures are not closely related to the superficially similar New World vultures and condors, and do not share that group's good sense of smell. The similarities between the two groups of vultures are due to convergent evolution, rather than a close relationship. They were widespread in both the Old World and North America during the Neogene. Old World vultures are probably a polyphyletic group within Accipitridae, belonging to two separate not closely related groups within the family. [2] Most authorities refer to two major clades: Gypaetinae ( Gypaetus, Gypohierax and Neophron ) and Aegypiinae ( Aegypius , Gyps , Sarcogyps , Torgos , Trigonoceps and possibly Necrosyrtes ). The former seem to be nested with Perninae hawks, while the latter are closely related and possibly even synonymous with Aquilinae. [3] Within Aegypiinae, Torgos, Aegypius, Sarcogyps and Trigonoceps are particularly closely related and possibly within the same genus. [4] [5] Despite the name of the group, "Old World" vultures were widespread in North America until relatively recently, until the end of the Late Pleistocene epoch around 11,000 years ago. [6]

Both Old World and New World vultures are scavenging birds, feeding mostly from carcasses of dead animals. Old World vultures find carcasses exclusively by sight. A particular characteristic of many vultures is a semi-bald head, sometimes without feathers or with just simple down. Historically, it was thought that this was due to feeding habits, as feathers would be glued with decaying flesh and blood. However, more recent studies have shown that it is actually a thermoregulatory adaptation to avoid facial overheating; the presence or absence of complex feathers seems to matter little in feeding habits, as some vultures are quite raptorial. [4] [5] [7]

Species

SubfamilyGenusCommon and binomial namesImageRange
Gypaetinae Gypaetus Bearded vulture
(Lammergeier)
Gypaetus barbatus		 Bearded Vulture with bone - Catalan Pyrenees - Spain.jpg High mountains in southern Europe, the Caucasus, Africa, the Indian subcontinent and Tibet
Gypohierax Palm-nut vulture
Gypohierax angolensis		 Palm-nut Vulture - Murchison Falls NP - Uganda 06 5600 (15280673919).jpg Forests and savannahs across sub-Saharan Africa
Neophron Egyptian vulture
Neophron percnopterus		 Egyptian vulture.jpg Southwestern Europe and North Africa to India
† Neophrontops
Neophrontops americanus fossil cropped.jpg
Native to North America during the Late Pleistocene
† Neogyps
Neogyps errans.jpg
Native to North America during the Late Pleistocene
AegypiinaeAegypius Cinereous vulture
Aegypius monachus [8] 		Black Vulture 1.jpg Southwestern and central Europe, Turkey, the central Middle East, northern India and central and eastern Asia
† Aegypius jinniushanensis Formerly China
† Aegypius prepyrenaicus Formerly Spain
Gyps Griffon vulture
Gyps fulvus		 Beloglav leshoiad - 1.jpg Mountains in southern Europe, North Africa, and Asia
White-rumped vulture
Gyps bengalensis		 Gyps bengalensis PLoS.png Northern and central India, Pakistan, Nepal, Bangladesh and Southeast Asia
Rüppell's vulture
Gyps rueppelli		 Gyps rueppellii -Nairobi National Park, Kenya-8-4c.jpg The Sahel region of Central Africa
Indian vulture
Gyps indicus		 The Indian Vulture (Gyps indicus) or Long-billed Vulture.jpg Central and peninsular India
Slender-billed vulture
Gyps tenuirostris		 Gyps tenuirostris.png The Sub-Himalayan regions of India and into Southeast Asia
Himalayan vulture
Gyps himalayensis		 Himalayan Vulture (by a road) (2926948182).jpg The Himalayas and the Tibetan Plateau
White-backed vulture
Gyps africanus		 White-backed Vulture Chobe.jpg Savannahs of West and East Africa
Cape vulture
Gyps coprotheres		 Cape Vulture - Giant Castle - South-Africa 010002 (15444476446).jpg Southern Africa
Necrosyrtes Hooded vulture
Necrosyrtes monachus		 Vulture in Tanzania 3118 cropped Nevit.jpg Sub-Saharan Africa
Sarcogyps Red-headed vulture
Sarcogyps calvus		 Red-headed Vulture (Sarcogyps calvus), immature, Bharatpur, India (254).jpg The Indian Subcontinent, with small disjunct populations in Southeast Asia
Torgos Lappet-faced vulture
Torgos tracheliotos		 Nubianvulture.jpeg Sub-Saharan Africa, the Sinai and Negev deserts and northwestern Saudi Arabia
Trigonoceps White-headed vulture
Trigonoceps occipitalis		 Trigonoceps occipitalis -Kruger National Park, South Africa -flying-8.jpg Sub-Saharan Africa, formerly native to Indonesia during the Late Pleistocene
† Cryptogyps Native to Australia during the Middle or Late Pleistocene

† = extinct

Population declines, threats, and implications

Population declines

More than half of the Old World vulture species are listed as vulnerable, endangered, or critically endangered by the IUCN Red List. [9] Population declines are caused by a variety of threats that vary by species and region, with most notable declines in Asia due to diclofenac use. [9] Within Africa, a combination of poisonings and vulture trade (including use as bushmeat and traditional medicine) account for roughly 90% of the population declines. [9] And because vultures are scavengers, their population decline can have cultural, public health, and economic implications for communities and be even more problematic than the decline of other endangered species. [9] [10] Vulture populations are particularly vulnerable because they typically feed in large groups and easily fall victim to mass poisoning events. [11]

Threats

Diclofenac

Diclofenac poisoning has caused the vulture population in India and Pakistan to decline by up to 99%, and two or three species of vulture in South Asia are nearing extinction. [12] This has been caused by the practice of medicating working farm animals with diclofenac, which is a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) with anti-inflammatory and pain-killing actions. Diclofenac administration keeps animals that are ill or in pain working on the land for longer, but, if the ill animals die, their carcasses contain diclofenac. Farmers leave the dead animals out in the open, relying on vultures to tidy up. Diclofenac present in carcass flesh is eaten by vultures, which are sensitive to diclofenac, and they suffer kidney failure, visceral gout, and death as a result of diclofenac poisoning. The drug is poisonous enough that only a small amount of animal carcases need to contain it to have detrimental effects on vulture populations. [13]

Meloxicam (another NSAID) has been found to be harmless to vultures and should prove an acceptable alternative to diclofenac. [12] Bans on diclofenac in veterinary practices have been implemented in Pakistan and Nepal and selling or using the drug in India can result in jail time. [13] But while the Government of India banned diclofenac, over a year later, in 2007, it continued to be sold and remains a problem in other parts of the world. [12]

Poached carcass poisonings

Poisoning accounts for a majority of vulture deaths in Africa. Ivory poachers poison carcasses with the intent of killing vultures, since vultures circling over a carcass alert authorities to a kill. [14] [15] An increase in demand for ivory has both increased the rate of elephant poachings as well as increased the rate at which vultures are killed off by consuming the poisoned elephant remains. [16] In Kruger National Park, white-backed vultures will be eradicated in the next 60 years if poisoned carcasses are not detected and neutralized. Eliminating carcass poisoning is challenging because it is far easier to carry out than to regulate. Park officials often lack the training to identify toxic chemicals before it is too late and calling on average community members to turn in perpetrators reports is challenging if financial incentives to do so are insufficient. [10]

Agricultural poisonings

Vultures are also unintentionally poisoned when they consume carcasses of predators that have been poisoned by livestock farmers. [14] [15] For those who rely on livestock to make a living, illegal pesticides are often used on fruits, meats, or even the water in a wateringhole in order to eliminate large predators that threaten their livestock. Agricultural poisoning is relatively easy as it does not require specific skills and the poison is cheap with a long shelf life. [10]

Traditional medicine/belief and use

Vultures in Africa are killed for use in traditional medicine as part of the African vulture trade. Vultures can be targeted for the industry directly or collected from other poisoning events, but close to 30% of vulture deaths recorded in Africa can be tied back to belief-based use. [10] In South Africa, vulture consumption events have been estimated to occur 59,000 times a year. [17] Vulture heads are believed to provide clairvoyance or good luck like winning the lottery. [11] [14] [15] The length of time a vulture can be used by healers is dependent on size and species. Some healers have been recorded using Cape vultures for 6 years because they are said to last longer than other species. Others use 1-2 individuals a year but this rate is unsustainable given the estimated number of healers. [11]

Muthi

In Southern Africa, traditional medicine is called Muthi. For some healers it is believed to cure illnesses, while others believe it cures curses. Vulture muthi involves separate body parts being dried, burned, or ground up. The results may be consumed by mixing with food, drinking, snorting, or applying to cuts. Some healers look for signs of poisoning when purchasing vultures, but others are unaware of how to do this and are at risk of poisoning their clients. [11]

Bushmeat consumption

Another part of the African vulture trade is use for bushmeat consumption. [9]

Electrical infrastructure

Collisions with electrical infrastructure account for roughly 9% of vulture deaths in Africa. [9] Some organizations in South Africa are working with power companies to mitigate this threat.

Implications

As vultures play an important role in ecosystems, their population decline can have cultural, public health, and economic implications for communities. [9]

The decline in vultures has led to hygiene problems in India as carcasses of dead animals now tend to rot, or be eaten by rats or feral dogs, rather than be consumed by vultures. [18] Rabies among these other scavengers is a major health threat. India has one of the world's highest incidences of rabies. [19]

For communities such as the Parsi, who practice sky burials in which human corpses are put on the top of a Tower of Silence, vulture population declines can have serious cultural implications. [18]

Conservation efforts

Conservation efforts would be most effective in large, protected areas because vultures are most populous in those. [16] Small but frequent poisoning events have a more detrimental effect on vulture populations than larger, infrequent events because population recovery is more successful when there is a longer time between poisonings. To increase populations, vultures can be reintroduced to poison-free protected areas near other groups of vultures to keep the populations high. This will make it easier for vultures to maintain some individuals after a poisoning event. [20] A project named "Vulture Restaurant" is underway in Nepal in an effort to conserve the dwindling number of vultures. The "restaurant" is an open grassy area where naturally dying, sick, and old cows are fed to the vultures. [21] [22]

Organizations across Africa are working to reduce threats to vulture species with efforts to change and create policies to protect species both at the national and international scale. [23] Proposed strategies to reduce poisoning events include mobile phone numbers to report offenders, campaigns to educate about poisoning risks to humans, and improving response speed to poisoning events. [10] Poison response training would be an important implementation in conservation efforts because this is one of the most prevalent threats to vulture populations. [16]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vulture</span> Common name for a type of bird

A vulture is a bird of prey that scavenges on carrion. There are 23 extant species of vulture. Old World vultures include 16 living species native to Europe, Africa, and Asia; New World vultures are restricted to North and South America and consist of seven identified species, all belonging to the Cathartidae family. A particular characteristic of many vultures is a bald, unfeathered head. This bare skin is thought to keep the head clean when feeding, and also plays an important role in thermoregulation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Himalayan vulture</span> Species of bird

The Himalayan vulture or Himalayan griffon vulture is an Old World vulture native to the Himalayas and the adjoining Tibetan Plateau. It is one of the two largest Old World vultures and true raptors. It is listed as Near Threatened on the IUCN Red List. It is not to be confused with the Eurasian griffon vulture, which is a similar and sympatric species.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">White-rumped vulture</span> Species of bird

The white-rumped vulture is an Old World vulture native to South and Southeast Asia. It has been listed as Critically Endangered on the IUCN Red List since 2000, as the population severely declined. White-rumped vultures die of kidney failure caused by diclofenac poisoning. In the 1980s, the global population was estimated at several million individuals, and it was thought to be "the most abundant large bird of prey in the world". As of 2021, the global population was estimated at less than 6,000 mature individuals.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Indian vulture</span> Species of vulture

The Indian vulture or long-billed vulture is a bird of prey native to the Indian subcontinent. It is an Old World vulture belonging to the family of Accipitridae. It is a medium-sized vulture with a small, semi-bald head with little feathers, long beak, and wide dark colored wings. It breeds mainly on small cliffs and hilly crags in central India and south India.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hooded vulture</span> Species of bird

The hooded vulture is an Old World vulture in the order Accipitriformes, which also includes eagles, kites, buzzards and hawks. It is the only member of the genus Necrosyrtes, which is sister to the larger Gyps genus, both of which are a part of the Aegypiinae subfamily of Old World vultures. It is native to sub-Saharan Africa, where it has a widespread distribution with populations in southern, East and West Africa. It is a scruffy-looking, small vulture with dark brown plumage, a long thin bill, bare crown, face and fore-neck, and a downy nape and hind-neck. Its face is usually a light red colour. It typically scavenges on carcasses of wildlife and domestic animals. Although it remains a common species with a stable population in the lower region of Casamance, some areas of The Gambia, and Guinea-Bissau, other regions such as Dakar, Senegal, show more than 85% losses in population over the last 50 years. Threats include poisoning, hunting, loss of habitat and collisions with electricity infrastructure, and the International Union for Conservation of Nature has rated its conservation status as "critically endangered" in their latest assessment (2022). The highest current regional density of hooded vultures is in the western region of The Gambia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Egyptian vulture</span> Species of Old World vultures of the genus Neophron

The Egyptian vulture, also called the white scavenger vulture or pharaoh's chicken, is a small Old World vulture in the monotypic genus Neophron. It is widely distributed from the Iberian Peninsula, North Africa, West Asia and India. The contrasting underwing pattern and wedge-shaped tail make it distinctive in flight as it soars in thermals during the warmer parts of the day. Egyptian vultures feed mainly on carrion but are opportunistic and will prey on small mammals, birds, and reptiles. They also feed on the eggs of other birds, breaking larger ones by tossing a large pebble onto them.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">White-backed vulture</span> Species of bird

The white-backed vulture is an Old World vulture in the family Accipitridae, which also includes eagles, kites, buzzards and hawks. It is the most common vulture species in the continent of Africa.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cinereous vulture</span> Species of bird

The cinereous vulture is a large raptor in the family Accipitridae and distributed through much of temperate Eurasia. It is also known as the black vulture, monk vulture and Eurasian black vulture. With a body length of 1.2 m, 3.1 m (10 ft) across the wings and a maximum weight of 14 kg (31 lb), it is the largest Old World vulture and largest member of the Accipitridae family.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rüppell's vulture</span> Species of bird

Rüppell's vulture, also called Rüppell's griffon vulture, named after Eduard Rüppell, is a large bird of prey, mainly native to the Sahel region and East Africa. The former population of 22,000 has been decreasing due to loss of habitat, incidental poisoning, and other factors. Known also as Rüppell's griffon, Rueppell's griffon, Rüppell's griffin vulture, Rueppell's vulture and other variants, it is not to be confused with a different species, the griffon vulture. Rüppell's vulture is considered to be the highest-flying bird, with confirmed evidence of a flight at an altitude of 11,300 m (37,000 ft) above sea level.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Aegypiinae</span> Subfamily of birds

Aegypiinae is one of two subfamilies of Accipitridae that are referred to as Old World vultures, the other being the Gypaetinae. They are not closely related to the Gypaetinae, and are instead a sister group to the serpent-eagles (Circaetinae).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Scavenger</span> Organism that feeds on dead animal and/or plants material

Scavengers are animals that consume dead organisms that have died from causes other than predation or have been killed by other predators. While scavenging generally refers to carnivores feeding on carrion, it is also a herbivorous feeding behavior. Scavengers play an important role in the ecosystem by consuming dead animal and plant material. Decomposers and detritivores complete this process, by consuming the remains left by scavengers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cape vulture</span> Species of bird

The Cape vulture, also known as Cape griffon and Kolbe's vulture, is an Old World vulture in the family Accipitridae. It is endemic to southern Africa, and lives mainly in South Africa, Lesotho, Botswana, and in some parts of northern Namibia. It nests on cliffs and lays one egg per year. In 2015, it had been classified as Endangered on the IUCN Red List, but was down-listed to Vulnerable in 2021 as some populations increased and have been stable since about 2016.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Red-headed vulture</span> Species of bird

The red-headed vulture, also known as the Asian king vulture, Indian black vulture or Pondicherry vulture, is an Old World vulture mainly found in the Indian subcontinent, with small disjunct populations in some parts of Southeast Asia.

Visceral gout is a disease of birds in which kidney failure causes a build-up of urates in the internal organs, leaving a chalky white coating on them. Symptoms include anorexia and emaciation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">White-headed vulture</span> Species of bird

The white-headed vulture is an Old World vulture endemic to Africa. Populations have been declining steeply in recent years due to habitat degradation and poisoning of vultures at carcasses. An extinct relative was also present in the Indonesian island of Flores during the Late Pleistocene, indicating that the genus was more widespread in the past.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gypaetinae</span> Subfamily of birds

The Gypaetinae is one of two subfamilies of Old World vultures the other being the Aegypiinae. Some taxonomic authorities place the Gypaetinae within the Perninae hawks. They are presently found throughout much of Africa, Asia, and southern Europe, hence being considered "Old World" vultures, but as recently as the Late Pleistocene, they were also present in North America.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Indian vulture crisis</span> Ecological crisis in Indian subcontinent

Nine species of vulture can be found living in India, but most are now in danger of extinction after a rapid and major population collapse in recent decades. In the early 1980s, three species of Gyps vultures had a combined estimated population of 40 million in South Asia, while in 2017 the total population numbered only 19,000.

A vulture restaurant is a site where carrion, decaying flesh from dead animals, is deposited in order to be consumed by vultures, and is sometimes referred to more generally as supplemental feeding or provisioning. These stations can also be referred to as vulture feeding sites, vulture feeding stations, and vulture safe zones. This supplemental feeding practice is used to provide vultures with reliable, non-contaminated food sources or to aid in monitoring schemes. Vulture restaurants have been instituted as a method of vulture conservation in Europe and Africa since the 1960's and 70's, when vulture populations began to decline. This strategy is used because often population declines are attributed to low food availability, food contamination or insufficient nutritional quality, or feeding from human areas leading to conflict. Notably, large vulture population declines in South Asia, referred to as the Asian or Indian vulture crisis, and Africa, referred to as the African vulture crisis, have brought renewed attention to the uses and impacts of vulture restaurants. Vulture restaurants are used in Asia, Africa, Europe, and North America for various conservation and management plans. They can help combat food-derived threats to vultures, such as diclofenac or lead contamination or conflict with ranchers and poachers. The first vulture restaurant was built in South Africa in 1966. Vulture restaurants operate in a number of countries, including Nepal, India, Cambodia, South Africa, Eswatini, and Spain.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">African vulture trade</span> Use of vulture for various reasons in Sub-Saharan Africa

The African vulture trade involves the poaching, trafficking, and illegal sale of vultures and vulture parts for bushmeat and for ritual and religious use, like traditional medicines, in Sub-Saharan Africa. This illegal trade of vultures and vulture parts is contributing to a population crisis on the continent. In 2017, the IUCN Red List categorized 7 of Africa's 11 vulture species as globally endangered or critically endangered. Recent research suggests that 90% of vulture species declines in Africa may be due to a combination of poisoning and illegal wildlife trade for medicinal use and/or bushmeat. All trade of African vultures is illegal, as these birds are protected by international laws.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">African vulture crisis</span> Ecological disaster in Africa

The African vulture crisis is the name given to the ongoing population decline in several Old World vulture species across Africa. Steep population declines have been reported from many locations across the continent since the early 2000s. The causes are mainly poisoning from baited animal carcasses, and the illegal trade in vulture body parts for traditional medicine. Available data suggest that the African vulture crisis may be similar in scale to the Indian vulture crisis, but more protracted and less well documented.

References

  1. ↑ "Aegypiinae". Fossilworks . Gateway to the Paleobiology Database . Retrieved 4 November 2021.
  2. ↑ Lerner & Mindell 2005.
  3. ↑ (Griffiths et al. 2007, Lerner and Mindell 2005)
  4. 1 2 Mundy, P. et al. 1992. The Vultures of Africa, Academic Press.
  5. 1 2 Wilber, S. & Jackson, J. 1983. Vulture Biology and Management, University of California
  6. ↑ Zhang, Zihui; Feduccia, Alan; James, Helen F. (2012-11-09). Iwaniuk, Andrew (ed.). "A Late Miocene Accipitrid (Aves: Accipitriformes) from Nebraska and Its Implications for the Divergence of Old World Vultures". PLOS ONE. 7 (11): e48842. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...748842Z. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0048842 . ISSN   1932-6203. PMC   3494718 . PMID   23152811.
  7. ↑ (Ward et al. 2008)
  8. ↑ "AnimalDiversityWeb: Aegypius: Classification". AnimalDiversity.ummz.umich.edu. Retrieved 2011-05-28.
  9. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Ogada, Darcy L.; Keesing, Felicia; Virani, Munir Z. (2012-02-01). "Dropping dead: causes and consequences of vulture population declines worldwide". Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 1249 (#1): 57–71. Bibcode:2012NYASA1249...57O. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2011.06293.x. ISSN   1749-6632. PMID   22175274. S2CID   23734331.
  10. 1 2 3 4 5 Gore, Meredith L.; Hübschle, Annette; Botha, André J.; Coverdale, Brent M.; Garbett, Rebecca; Harrell, Reginal M.; Krüger, Sonja C.; Mullinax, Jennifer M.; Olson, Lars J.; Ottinger, Mary Ann; Smit-Robinson, Hanneline (2020-09-01). "A conservation criminology-based desk assessment of vulture poisoning in the Great Limpopo Transfrontier Conservation Area". Global Ecology and Conservation. 23: e01076. doi: 10.1016/j.gecco.2020.e01076 . ISSN   2351-9894. S2CID   219037409.
  11. 1 2 3 4 Mashele, N. Mbali; Thompson, Lindy J.; Downs, Colleen T. (September 2021). "Uses of Vultures in Traditional Medicines in the Kruger to Canyons Biosphere Region, South Africa". Journal of Raptor Research. 55 (3): 328–339. doi:10.3356/JRR-20-36. ISSN   0892-1016. S2CID   237377331.
  12. 1 2 3 "Painkillers turned bird killers". New Scientist . No. 2577. 2006-11-14. p. 7.
  13. 1 2 Saini, Mohini; Taggart, Mark A.; Knopp, Dietmar; Upreti, Suchitra; Swarup, Devendra; Das, Asit; Gupta, Praveen K.; Niessner, Reinhard; Prakash, Vibhu; Mateo, Rafael; Cuthbert, Richard J. (2012-01-01). "Detecting diclofenac in livestock carcasses in India with an ELISA: A tool to prevent widespread vulture poisoning". Environmental Pollution. 160 (1): 11–16. doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2011.09.011. ISSN   0269-7491. PMID   22035919.
  14. 1 2 3 Elizabeth Royte (2015-12-10). "Vultures Are Revolting. Here's Why We Need to Save Them". National Geographic Magazine. Archived from the original on December 13, 2015. Retrieved 2016-02-29.
  15. 1 2 3 Madeline Bodin (2014-08-11). "Africa's Vultures Threatened By An Assault on All Fronts". Yale Environment 360. Retrieved 2016-02-29.
  16. 1 2 3 Murn, Campbell; Botha, André (July 2018). "A clear and present danger: impacts of poisoning on a vulture population and the effect of poison response activities". Oryx. 52 (3): 552–558. doi: 10.1017/S0030605316001137 . ISSN   0030-6053. S2CID   89944743.
  17. ↑ McKean, Steven; Mander, Myles; Diederichs, Nicci; Ntuli, Lungile; Mavundla, Khulile; Williams, Vivienne; Wakelin, James (2018-03-29). "The impact of traditional use on vultures in South Africa". Vulture News. 65 (1): 15. doi: 10.4314/vulnew.v65i1.2 . ISSN   1606-7479.
  18. 1 2 Dooren, Thom van (2010). "Vultures and Their People in India: Equity and Entanglement in a Time of Extinctions". Manoa. 22 (#2): 130–146. doi:10.1353/man.2010.a407433. ISSN   1527-943X. S2CID   201782317.
  19. ↑ Di Quinzio & McCarthy 2008.
  20. ↑ Tsiakiris, Rigas; Halley, John M.; Stara, Kalliopi; Monokrousos, Nikos; Karyou, Chryso; Kassinis, Nicolaos; Papadopoulos, Minas; Xirouchakis, Stavros M. (2021-10-18). "Models of poisoning effects on vulture populations show that small but frequent episodes have a larger effect than large but rare ones". Web Ecology. 21 (2): 79–93. doi: 10.5194/we-21-79-2021 . ISSN   1399-1183. S2CID   239045468.
  21. ↑ Haviland, Charles (2008-07-31). "Nepal's 'restaurant' for vultures". BBC News. Retrieved 2011-05-28.
  22. ↑ A vulture restaurant in South Africa Archived December 27, 2008, at the Wayback Machine
  23. ↑ "Multi-species Action Plan to Conserve African-Eurasian Vultures (Vulture MsAP) | CMS". www.cms.int. Retrieved 2018-04-18.
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