Rice as food

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Rice is commonly consumed as food around the world. It occurs in long-, medium-, and short-grained types. It is the staple food of over half the world's population.

Contents

Hazards associated with rice consumption include arsenic from the soil, and Bacillus cereus which can grow in poorly-stored cooked rice, and cause food poisoning.

Types

The varieties of rice are typically classified as long-, medium-, and short-grained. [1] The grains of long-grain rice (high in amylose) tend to remain intact after cooking; medium-grain rice (high in amylopectin) becomes more sticky. Medium-grain rice is used for sweet dishes, for risotto in Italy, and many rice dishes, such as arròs negre , in Spain. Some varieties of long-grain rice that are high in amylopectin, known as Thai Sticky rice, are usually steamed. [2] A stickier short-grain rice is used for sushi; [3] the stickiness allows rice to hold its shape when cooked. [4] Short-grain rice is used extensively in Japan, [5] including to accompany savoury dishes. [6] Short-grain rice is often used for rice pudding.

Independent of grain length and starchiness, rice can also be differentiated by traits such as aroma [7] and pigmentation (red, black). So-called wild rice, which are close cousins of domesticated rice, are not usually included in this classification.

Rice also differs by the processing applied to it. Rice starts as whole seeds with inedible rice hulls; removing the hull by milling produces brown rice. Polishing produces first rice with germ, then white rice. Cooking white rice then drying produces instant rice, though there is a significant degradation in taste and texture. Parboiled rice is different from instant rice: parboiled rice is first part-cooked with the husk before milling.

Rice flour and starch often are used in batters and breadings to increase crispiness.

Taste factors

The two main components and determinants of taste in rice are starch and protein. [8] [9] 80-90% of the weight of an uncooked rice grain is starch, and 7-10% is protein. [9] [10] Other important components of rice include fat, fibers, and minerals, all comprising less than 1% of rice by weight. [11]

The ratio of the two types of starch, linear amylose and branched amylopectin, affects cooked rice texture. Rice is mostly amylopectin, with amylose making up only 0-30% of the total starch. [11] [12] Amylopectin chains form double helices with each other and encourage crystallization, which raises the peak viscosity and starch gelatinization ability of cooked rice, [12] [13] meaning higher amylopectin content in rice will lead to a stickier cooked product. [14] Gelatinization is also inhibited by protein, and a higher protein content leads to increased hardness of the surface of rice grains. [8] [13] Protein and amylose content is determined by the conditions of rice growth. Higher concentrations of fertilizer result in higher protein content, [15] [16] and nonoptimal environmental factors such as higher temperature and insufficient water make rice chalkier by decreasing starch levels. [17] [18]

Preparation

Rinsing rice before cooking removes much of the starch, thereby reducing the extent to which individual grains will stick together. This yields a fluffier rice, whereas not rinsing yields a stickier and creamier result. [19] Rice produced in the US is usually fortified with vitamins and minerals, and rinsing will result in a loss of nutrients. In 2007, Haitian jails suffered from a beriberi epidemic as US-supplied enriched rice were washed before cooking, stripping them of the nutritious layer; [20] this is despite FDA's rules requiring fortification nutrients to be somewhat resistant to washing. [21]

Rice may be soaked to decrease cooking time, conserve fuel, minimize exposure to high temperature, and reduce stickiness. For some varieties, soaking improves the texture of the cooked rice by increasing expansion of the grains. Rice may be soaked for 30 minutes up to several hours.

Brown rice may be soaked in warm water for 20 hours to stimulate germination. This process, called germinated brown rice (GBR), [22] activates enzymes and enhances amino acids including gamma-aminobutyric acid to improve the nutritional value of brown rice. This method is a result of research carried out for the United Nations International Year of Rice.

Rice is cooked by boiling or steaming, and absorbs water during cooking. With the absorption method, rice is cooked in a volume of water equal to the volume of dry rice plus any evaporation losses, which is commonly measured with the tip of the finger. [23] [24] [25] [26] With the rapid-boil method, rice may be cooked in a large quantity of water which is drained before serving. Rapid-boil preparation is not desirable with enriched rice, as much of the enrichment additives are lost when the water is discarded. Electric rice cookers, popular in Asia and Latin America, simplify the process of cooking rice. Rice (or any other grain) is sometimes quickly fried in oil or fat before boiling (for example saffron rice or risotto); this makes the cooked rice less sticky, and is a cooking style commonly called pilaf in Iran and Afghanistan or biryani in India and Pakistan.

Dishes

In Arab cuisine, rice is an ingredient of many soups and dishes with fish, poultry, and other types of meat. It is used to stuff vegetables or is wrapped in grape leaves (dolma). When combined with milk, sugar, and honey, it is used to make desserts. In some regions, such as Tabaristan, bread is made using rice flour. Rice may be made into congee (also called rice porridge or rice gruel) by adding more water than usual, so that the cooked rice is saturated with water, usually to the point that it disintegrates. Rice porridge is commonly eaten as a breakfast food, and is a traditional food for the sick.

Nutrition

Rice, white, long-grain, regular, unenriched, cooked without salt
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy 130 kcal (540 kJ)
28.1 g
Sugars 0.05 g
Dietary fiber 0.4 g
Fat
0.28 g
2.69 g
Vitamins Quantity
%DV
Thiamine (B1)
2%
0.02 mg
Riboflavin (B2)
1%
0.013 mg
Niacin (B3)
3%
0.4 mg
Pantothenic acid (B5)
0%
0 mg
Vitamin B6
7%
0.093 mg
Folate (B9)
0%
0 μg
Minerals Quantity
%DV
Calcium
1%
10 mg
Iron
2%
0.2 mg
Magnesium
3%
12 mg
Manganese
22%
0.472 mg
Phosphorus
6%
43 mg
Potassium
1%
35 mg
Sodium
0%
1 mg
Zinc
1%
0.049 mg
Other constituentsQuantity
Water68.44 g

Percentages are roughly approximated using US recommendations for adults.
Source: USDA FoodData Central

Rice is the staple food of over half the world's population. It is the predominant dietary energy source for 17 countries in Asia and the Pacific, 9 countries in North and South America and 8 countries in Africa. Rice provides 20% of the world's dietary energy supply, while wheat supplies 19% and maize (corn) 5%. [27]

Cooked unenriched long-grain white rice is composed of 68% water, 28% carbohydrates, 3% protein, and 1% fat (table). A 100-gram (3+12-ounce) reference serving of it provides 540 kilojoules (130 kilocalories) of food energy and contains moderate amounts of manganese per 100-gram serving (table). Cooked unenriched short-grain rice has a very similar nutritional profile (see footnote link). [28]

A detailed analysis of nutrient content of rice suggests that the nutrition value of rice varies based on a number of factors. It depends on the type and strain of rice, such as white, brown, red, and black (or purple) varieties, each having different prevalence across world regions. [29] It also depends on nutrient quality of the soil rice is grown in, whether and how the rice is polished or processed, the manner it is enriched, and how it is prepared before consumption. [30]

A 2018 World Health Organization (WHO) guideline showed that fortification of rice to reduce malnutrition may involve different micronutrient strategies, including iron only, iron with zinc, vitamin A, and folic acid, or iron with other B-complex vitamins, such as thiamin, niacin, vitamin B6, and pantothenic acid. [29] A systematic review of clinical research on the efficacy of rice fortification showed the strategy had the main effect of reducing the risk of iron deficiency by 35% and increasing blood levels of hemoglobin. [29] The guideline established a major recommendation: "Fortification of rice with iron is recommended as a public health strategy to improve the iron status of populations, in settings where rice is a staple food." [29]

Rice grown experimentally under elevated carbon dioxide levels, similar to those predicted for the year 2100 as a result of human activity, had less iron, zinc, and protein, as well as lower levels of thiamin, riboflavin, folic acid, and pantothenic acid. [31] The following table shows the nutrient content of rice and other major staple foods in a raw form on a dry weight basis to account for their different water contents. [32]

Nutrient content of 10 major staple foods per 100 g dry weight [33]
Staple Maize (corn) [A] Rice, white [B] Wheat [C] Potatoes [D] Cassava [E] Soybeans, green [F] Sweet potatoes [G] Yams [Y] Sorghum [H] Plantain [Z] RDA
Water content (%)1012137960687770965
Raw grams per 100 g dry weight111114115476250313435333110286
Nutrient
Energy (kJ)16981736157415331675192215651647155914608,368–10,460
Protein (g)10.48.114.59.53.540.67.05.012.43.750
Fat (g)5.30.81.80.40.721.60.20.63.61.144–77
Carbohydrates (g)82918281953487938291130
Fiber (g)8.11.514.010.54.513.113.013.76.96.630
Sugar (g)0.70.10.53.74.30.018.21.70.042.9minimal
Minerals [A] [B] [C] [D] [E] [F] [G] [Y] [H] [Z] RDA
Calcium (mg)832335740616130573191,000
Iron (mg)3.010.913.673.710.6811.092.651.804.841.718
Magnesium (mg)1412814511053203109700106400
Phosphorus (mg)2331313312716860620418331597700
Potassium (mg)319131417200567819381465272038514264700
Sodium (mg)3962293547239307111,500
Zinc (mg)2.461.243.051.380.853.091.300.800.000.4011
Copper (mg)0.340.250.490.520.250.410.650.60-0.230.9
Manganese (mg)0.541.244.590.710.951.721.131.33--2.3
Selenium (μg)17.217.281.31.41.84.72.62.30.04.355
Vitamins [A] [B] [C] [D] [E] [F] [G] [Y] [H] [Z] RDA
Vitamin C (mg)0.00.00.093.851.590.610.457.00.052.690
Thiamin (B1) (mg)0.430.080.340.380.231.380.350.370.260.141.2
Riboflavin (B2) (mg)0.220.060.140.140.130.560.260.100.150.141.3
Niacin (B3) (mg)4.031.826.285.002.135.162.431.833.221.9716
Pantothenic acid (B5) (mg)0.471.151.091.430.280.473.481.03-0.745
Vitamin B6 (mg)0.690.180.341.430.230.220.910.97-0.861.3
Folate Total (B9) (μg)2194476685164877063400
Vitamin A (IU)23801010335634178460032205000
Vitamin E, alpha-tocopherol (mg)0.540.131.160.050.480.001.131.300.000.4015
Vitamin K1 (μg)0.30.12.29.04.80.07.88.70.02.0120
Beta-carotene (μg)108065200369962770130610500
Lutein+zeaxanthin (μg)150602533800000866000
Fats [A] [B] [C] [D] [E] [F] [G] [Y] [H] [Z] RDA
Saturated fatty acids (g)0.740.200.300.140.182.470.090.130.510.40minimal
Monounsaturated fatty acids (g)1.390.240.230.000.204.000.000.031.090.0922–55
Polyunsaturated fatty acids (g)2.400.200.720.190.1310.000.040.271.510.2013–19
[A] [B] [C] [D] [E] [F] [G] [Y] [H] [Z] RDA

A raw yellow dent corn
B raw unenriched long-grain white rice
C raw hard red winter wheat
D raw potato with flesh and skin
E raw cassava
F raw green soybeans
G raw sweet potato
H raw sorghum
Y raw yam
Z raw plantains
/* unofficial

Hazards

Arsenic

As arsenic occurs in soil, water, and air, the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) monitors the levels of arsenic in foods, particularly in rice products used commonly for infant food. [34] While growing, rice plants tend to absorb arsenic more readily than other food crops, requiring expanded testing by the FDA for possible arsenic-related risks associated with rice consumption in the United States. [34] In April 2016, the FDA proposed a limit of 100 parts per billion (ppb) for inorganic arsenic in infant rice cereal and other foods to minimize exposure of infants to arsenic. [34] For water contamination by arsenic, the United States Environmental Protection Agency has set a lower standard of 10 ppb. [35]

Arsenic is a IARC Group 1 carcinogen. [34] [36] The amount of arsenic in rice varies widely with the greatest concentration in brown rice and rice grown on land formerly used to grow cotton, such as in Arkansas, Louisiana, Missouri, and Texas. [37] White rice grown in Arkansas, Louisiana, Missouri, and Texas, which account collectively for 76 percent of American-produced rice, had higher levels of arsenic than other regions of the world studied, possibly because of past use of arsenic-based pesticides to control cotton weevils. [38] Jasmine rice from Thailand and Basmati rice from Pakistan and India contain the least arsenic among rice varieties in one study. [38]

Bacillus cereus

Cooked rice can contain Bacillus cereus spores, which produce an emetic toxin when left at 4–60 °C (39–140 °F). When storing cooked rice for use the next day, rapid cooling is advised to reduce the risk of toxin production. [39] One of the enterotoxins produced by Bacillus cereus is heat-resistant; reheating contaminated rice kills the bacteria, but does not destroy the toxin already present.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cooking</span> Preparing food using heat

Cooking, also known as cookery or professionally as the culinary arts, is the art, science and craft of using heat to make food more palatable, digestible, nutritious, or safe. Cooking techniques and ingredients vary widely, from grilling food over an open fire, to using electric stoves, to baking in various types of ovens, reflecting local conditions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Food</span> Substances consumed for nutrition

Food is any substance consumed by an organism for nutritional support. Food is usually of plant, animal, or fungal origin and contains essential nutrients such as carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, or minerals. The substance is ingested by an organism and assimilated by the organism's cells to provide energy, maintain life, or stimulate growth. Different species of animals have different feeding behaviours that satisfy the needs of their metabolisms and have evolved to fill a specific ecological niche within specific geographical contexts.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pasta</span> Cooked dough food in Italian cuisine

Pasta is a type of food typically made from an unleavened dough of wheat flour mixed with water or eggs, and formed into sheets or other shapes, then cooked by boiling or baking. Rice flour, or legumes such as beans or lentils, are sometimes used in place of wheat flour to yield a different taste and texture, or as a gluten-free alternative. Pasta is a staple food of Italian cuisine.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Starch</span> Glucose polymer used as energy store in plants

Starch or amylum is a polymeric carbohydrate consisting of numerous glucose units joined by glycosidic bonds. This polysaccharide is produced by most green plants for energy storage. Worldwide, it is the most common carbohydrate in human diets, and is contained in large amounts in staple foods such as wheat, potatoes, maize (corn), rice, and cassava (manioc).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chickpea</span> Species of flowering plant with edible seeds in the family Fabaceae

The chickpea or chick pea is an annual legume of the family Fabaceae, subfamily Faboideae. Its different types are variously known as gram or Bengal gram, chhana, chana, or channa, garbanzo or garbanzo bean, or Egyptian pea. Chickpea seeds are high in protein. It is one of the earliest cultivated legumes, the oldest archaeological evidence of which was found in Syria.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mochi</span> Japanese rice cake

Mochi is a Japanese rice cake made of mochigome (もち米), a short-grain japonica glutinous rice, and sometimes other ingredients such as water, sugar, and cornstarch. The steamed rice is pounded into paste and molded into the desired shape. In Japan, it is traditionally made in a ceremony called mochitsuki. While eaten year-round, mochi is a traditional food for the Japanese New Year, and is commonly sold and eaten during that time.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Glutinous rice</span> Type of rice

Glutinous rice is a type of rice grown mainly in Southeast and East Asia, and the northeastern regions of South Asia, which has opaque grains, very low amylose content, and is especially sticky when cooked. It is widely consumed across Asia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sprouting</span> Practice of germinating seeds to be eaten raw or cooked

Sprouting is the natural process by which seeds or spores germinate and put out shoots, and already established plants produce new leaves or buds, or other structures experience further growth.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Amylose</span> Chemical compound

Amylose is a polysaccharide made of α-D-glucose units, bonded to each other through α(1→4) glycosidic bonds. It is one of the two components of starch, making up approximately 20–30%. Because of its tightly packed helical structure, amylose is more resistant to digestion than other starch molecules and is therefore an important form of resistant starch.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Amylopectin</span> Chemical compound

Amylopectin is a water-insoluble polysaccharide and highly branched polymer of α-glucose units found in plants. It is one of the two components of starch, the other being amylose.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">White rice</span> Milled rice that has had its husk, bran, and germ removed

White rice is milled rice that has had its husk, bran, and germ removed. This alters the flavor, texture and appearance of the rice and helps prevent spoilage, extend its storage life, and makes it easier to digest. After milling (hulling), the rice is polished, resulting in a seed with a bright, white, shiny appearance.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Risotto</span> Northern Italian rice dish

Risotto is an Italian rice dish cooked with broth until it reaches a creamy consistency. The broth can be derived from meat, fish, or vegetables. Many types of risotto contain butter, onion, white wine, and Parmesan cheese. It is one of the most common ways of cooking rice in Italy. Saffron was originally used for flavour and its signature yellow colour.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Parboiled rice</span> Partially cooked rice

Parboiled rice, also called converted rice, easy-cook rice, sella rice, and miniket is rice that has been partially boiled in the husk. The three basic steps of parboiling are soaking, steaming and drying. These steps make the rice easier to process by hand, while also boosting its nutritional profile, changing its texture, and making it more resistant to weevils. The treatment is practiced in many other parts of the world.

Starch gelatinization is a process of breaking down of intermolecular bonds of starch molecules in the presence of water and heat, allowing the hydrogen bonding sites to engage more water. This irreversibly dissolves the starch granule in water. Water acts as a plasticizer.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Resistant starch</span> Dietary fiber

Resistant starch (RS) is starch, including its degradation products, that escapes from digestion in the small intestine of healthy individuals. Resistant starch occurs naturally in foods, but it can also be added as part of dried raw foods, or used as an additive in manufactured foods.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Amaranth grain</span> Edible grain of the Amaranth genus

Species belonging to the genus Amaranthus have been cultivated for their grains for 8,000 years. Amaranth plants are classified as pseudocereals that are grown for their edible starchy seeds, but they are not in the same botanical family as true cereals, such as wheat and rice. Amaranth species that are still used as a grain are Amaranthus caudatus L., Amaranthus cruentus L., and Amaranthus hypochondriacus L. The yield of grain amaranth is comparable to that of rice or maize.

In agriculture, grain quality depends on the use of the grain. In ethanol production, the chemical composition of grain such as starch content is important, in food and feed manufacturing, properties such as protein, oil and sugar are significant, in the milling industry, soundness is the most important factor to consider when it comes to the quality of grain. For grain farmers, high germination percentage and seed dormancy are the main features to consider. For consumers, properties such as color and flavor are most important.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Puffcorn</span> Puffed or extruded corn snacks

Puffcorn or corn puffs are puffed or extruded corn snacks made with corn meal, which can be baked or fried.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Staple food</span> Food that is eaten routinely and considered a dominant portion of a standard diet

A staple food, food staple, or simply staple, is a food that is eaten often and in such quantities that it constitutes a dominant portion of a standard diet for an individual or a population group, supplying a large fraction of energy needs and generally forming a significant proportion of the intake of other nutrients as well. For humans, a staple food of a specific society may be eaten as often as every day or every meal, and most people live on a diet based on just a small variety of food staples. Specific staples vary from place to place, but typically are inexpensive or readily available foods that supply one or more of the macronutrients and micronutrients needed for survival and health: carbohydrates, proteins, fats, minerals, and vitamins. Typical examples include grains, seeds, nuts and root vegetables. Among them, cereals, legumes and tubers account for about 90% of the world's food calorie intake.

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