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The Hittites were an Anatolian Indo-European people who formed one of the first major civilizations of Bronze Age West Asia. Possibly originating from beyond the Black Sea,they settled in modern-day Turkey in the early 2nd millennium BC. The Hittites formed a series of polities in north-central Anatolia,including the kingdom of Kussara,the Kanesh or Nesha kingdom,and an empire centered on Hattusa. Known in modern times as the Hittite Empire,it reached its peak during the mid-14th century BC under Šuppiluliuma I,when it encompassed most of Anatolia and parts of the northern Levant and Upper Mesopotamia,bordering the rival empires of the Hurri-Mitanni and Assyrians.
The Anatolian languages are an extinct branch of Indo-European languages that were spoken in Anatolia. The best known Anatolian language is Hittite,which is considered the earliest-attested Indo-European language.
Lydian is an extinct Indo-European Anatolian language spoken in the region of Lydia,in western Anatolia. The language is attested in graffiti and in coin legends from the late 8th century or the early 7th century to the 3rd century BCE,but well-preserved inscriptions of significant length are so far limited to the 5th century and the 4th century BCE,during the period of Persian domination. Thus,Lydian texts are effectively contemporaneous with those in Lycian.
Luwian,sometimes known as Luvian or Luish,is an ancient language,or group of languages,within the Anatolian branch of the Indo-European language family. The ethnonym Luwian comes from Luwiya –the name of the region in which the Luwians lived. Luwiya is attested,for example,in the Hittite laws.
Hittite,also known as Nesite,is an extinct Indo-European language that was spoken by the Hittites,a people of Bronze Age Anatolia who created an empire centred on Hattusa,as well as parts of the northern Levant and Upper Mesopotamia. The language,now long extinct,is attested in cuneiform,in records dating from the 17th to the 13th centuries BC,with isolated Hittite loanwords and numerous personal names appearing in an Old Assyrian context from as early as the 20th century BC,making it the earliest attested use of the Indo-European languages.
Palaic is an extinct Indo-European language,attested in cuneiform tablets in Bronze Age Hattusa,the capital of the Hittites. Palaic,which was apparently spoken mainly in northern Anatolia,is generally considered to be one of four primary sub-divisions of the Anatolian languages,alongside Hittite,Luwic and Lydian.
*Dyḗus,also *Dyḗus ph₂tḗr,is the reconstructed name of the daylight-sky god in Proto-Indo-European mythology. *Dyēus was conceived as a divine personification of the bright sky of the day and the seat of the gods,the *deywṓs. Associated with the vast diurnal sky and with the fertile rains,*Dyēus was often paired with *Dʰéǵʰōm,the Earth Mother,in a relationship of union and contrast.
In Indo-European linguistics,the term Indo-Hittite means Edgar Howard Sturtevant's 1926 hypothesis that the Anatolian languages split off a Pre-Proto-Indo-European language considerably earlier than the separation of the remaining Indo-European languages. The prefix Indo- does not refer to the Indo-Aryan branch in particular,but stands for Indo-European,and the -Hittite part refers to the Anatolian language family as a whole.
Indo-Uralic is a highly controversial linguistic hypothesis proposing a genealogical family consisting of Indo-European and Uralic.
Some loanwords in the variant of the Hurrian language spoken in Mitanni during the 2nd millennium BCE are identifiable as originating in an Indo-Aryan language;these are considered to constitute an Indo-Aryan superstrate in Mitanni. The words are theonyms,proper names and technical terminology related to horses (hippological).
The h₂e-conjugation theory adds a third conjugation to the two generally accepted conjugations of the Proto-Indo-European language (PIE),the thematic and athematic conjugations.
The Indo-European Etymological Dictionary was a research project of the Department of Comparative Indo-European Linguistics at Leiden University,initiated in 1991 by Peter Schrijver and others. It was financially supported by the Faculty of Humanities and Centre for Linguistics of Leiden University,Brill Publishers,and the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research.
The particles of the Proto-Indo-European language (PIE) have been reconstructed by modern linguists based on similarities found across all Indo-European languages.
The following is a table of many of the most fundamental Proto-Indo-European language (PIE) words and roots,with their cognates in all of the major families of descendants.
Innara is the Hittite god of woods and fields.
Tarḫunz was the weather god and chief god of the Luwians,a people of Bronze Age and early Iron Age Anatolia. He is closely associated with the Hittite god Tarḫunna and the Hurrian god Teshub.
Arma was an Anatolian Moon god,worshipped by the Hittites and Luwians in the Bronze Age and early Iron Age.
Tarḫunna or Tarḫuna/i was the Hittite weather god. He was also referred to as the "Weather god of Heaven" or the "Lord of the Land of Hatti".
Hittite phonology is the description of the reconstructed phonology or pronunciation of the Hittite language. Because Hittite as a spoken language is extinct,thus leaving no living daughter languages,and no contemporary descriptions of the pronunciation are known,little can be said with certainty about the phonetics and the phonology of the language. Some conclusions can be made,however,by noting its relationship to the other Indo-European languages,by studying its orthography and by comparing loanwords from nearby languages.
In historical linguistics,Weise's law describes the loss of palatal quality some consonants undergo in specific contexts in the Proto-Indo-European language. In short,when the consonants represented by *ḱ*ǵ*ǵʰ,called palatovelar consonants,are followed by *r,they lose their palatal quality,leading to a loss in distinction between them and the plain velar consonants *k*g*gʰ. Some exceptions exist,such as when the *r is followed by *i or when the palatal form is restored by analogy with related words. Although this sound change is most prominent in the satem languages,it is believed that the change must have occurred prior to the centum–satem division,based on an earlier sound change which affected the distribution of Proto-Indo-European *u and *r. The law is named after the German linguist Oskar Weise,who first postulated it in 1881 as the solution to reconciling cognates in Ancient Greek and Sanskrit.
References
- 1 2 Curriculum vitae , retrieved 2024-11-21
- ↑ Review of The Precursors of Proto-Indo-European: Petr Kocharov (2021), Journal of Language Relationship, doi : 10.31826/jlr-2020-181-207
- ↑ Reviews of Kanišite Hittite:
- Charles W. Steitler (2020), Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, doi : 10.1017/S0041977X20002967
- Ilya Yakubovich (2020), Zeitschrift für Assyriologie und vorderasiatische Archäologie, doi : 10.1515/za-2020-0026
- ↑ Reviews of Accent in Hittite:
- Elisabeth Rieken (2015), Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, doi : 10.1017/S0041977X15000737, JSTOR 24692233
- Alice Mouton (2016), Syria, doi : 10.4000/syria.4375
- Ilya Yakubovich (2016), Wiener Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenlandes, JSTOR 26449356
- H. Craig Melchert (2018), Journal of the American Oriental Society, doi : 10.7817/jameroriesoci.138.3.0593, JSTOR 10.7817/jameroriesoci.138.3.0593
