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The cervix or cervix uteri is a dynamic fibromuscular sexual organ of the female reproductive system that connects the vagina with the uterine cavity. The human female cervix has been documented anatomically since at least the time of Hippocrates, over 2,000 years ago. The cervix is approximately 4 cm long with a diameter of approximately 3 cm and tends to be described as a cylindrical shape, although the front and back walls of the cervix are contiguous. The size of the cervix changes throughout a woman's life cycle. For example, during the fertile years of a woman's reproductive cycle, females tend to have a larger cervix vis á vis postmenopausal females; likewise, females who have produced offspring have a larger sized cervix than females who have not produced offspring.
The Papanicolaou test is a method of cervical screening used to detect potentially precancerous and cancerous processes in the cervix or, more rarely, anus. Abnormal findings are often followed up by more sensitive diagnostic procedures and, if warranted, interventions that aim to prevent progression to cervical cancer. The test was independently invented in the 1920s by the Greek physician Georgios Papanikolaou and named after him. A simplified version of the test was introduced by the Canadian obstetrician Anna Marion Hilliard in 1957.
Cervical cancer is a cancer arising from the cervix or in any layer of the wall of the cervix. It is due to the abnormal growth of cells that have the ability to invade or spread to other parts of the body. Early on, typically no symptoms are seen. Later symptoms may include abnormal vaginal bleeding, pelvic pain or pain during sexual intercourse. While bleeding after sex may not be serious, it may also indicate the presence of cervical cancer.
Georgios Nikolaou Papanikolaou was a Greek physician, zoologist and microscopist who was a pioneer in cytopathology and early cancer detection, and inventor of the pap smear for detection of cervical cancer.
Human papillomavirus infection is caused by a DNA virus from the Papillomaviridae family. Many HPV infections cause no symptoms and 90% resolve spontaneously within two years. In some cases, an HPV infection persists and results in either warts or precancerous lesions. These lesions, depending on the site affected, increase the risk of cancer of the cervix, vulva, vagina, penis, anus, mouth, tonsils, or throat. Nearly all cervical cancer is due to HPV, and two strains – HPV16 and HPV18 – account for 70% of all cases. HPV16 is responsible for almost 90% of HPV-positive oropharyngeal cancers. Between 60% and 90% of the other cancers listed above are also linked to HPV. HPV6 and HPV11 are common causes of genital warts and laryngeal papillomatosis.
Cytopathology is a branch of pathology that studies and diagnoses diseases on the cellular level. The discipline was founded by George Nicolas Papanicolaou in 1928. Cytopathology is generally used on samples of free cells or tissue fragments, in contrast to histopathology, which studies whole tissues. Cytopathology is frequently, less precisely, called "cytology", which means "the study of cells".
Colposcopy is a medical diagnostic procedure to visually examine the cervix as well as the vagina and vulva using a colposcope.
Cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN), also known as cervical dysplasia, is the abnormal growth of cells on the surface of the cervix that could potentially lead to cervical cancer. More specifically, CIN refers to the potentially precancerous transformation of cells of the cervix.
The cervical canal is the spindle-shaped, flattened canal of the cervix which connects the vagina to the main cavity of the uterus in most mammals.
Diff-Quik is a commercial Romanowsky stain variant used to rapidly stain and differentiate a variety of pathology specimens. It is most frequently used for blood films and cytopathological smears, including fine needle aspirates. The Diff-Quik procedure is based on a modification of the Wright-Giemsa stain pioneered by Harleco in the 1970s, and has advantages over the routine Wright-Giemsa staining technique in that it reduces the 4-minute process into a much shorter operation and allows for selective increased eosinophilic or basophilic staining depending upon the time the smear is left in the staining solutions.
Margaret Anne Stanley, OBE FMedSc, is a British virologist and epithelial biologist. She attended the Universities of London, Bristol, and Adelaide. As of 2018, she is an Emeritus Professor of Epithelial Biology in the Department of Pathology at the University of Cambridge and a Fellow of the Academy of Medical Sciences. She is also an Honorary Fellow of the UK Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists and an honorary fellow of Christ's College, Cambridge. Stanley is a research scientist in virology focusing on the human papillomavirus (HPV). Her research work has led to new scientific findings on HPV. Additionally, she uses her expertise on HPV to serve on multiple advisory committees and journal editorial boards.
The Bethesda system (TBS), officially called The Bethesda System for Reporting Cervical Cytology, is a system for reporting cervical or vaginal cytologic diagnoses, used for reporting Pap smear results. It was introduced in 1988 and revised in 1991, 2001, and 2014. The name comes from the location of the conference, sponsored by the National Institutes of Health, that established the system.
Cervical cancer screening is a medical screening test designed to identify risk of cervical cancer. Cervical screening may involve looking for viral DNA, and/or to identify abnormal, potentially precancerous cells within the cervix as well as cells that have progressed to early stages of cervical cancer. One goal of cervical screening is to allow for intervention and treatment so abnormal lesions can be removed prior to progression to cancer. An additional goal is to decrease mortality from cervical cancer by identifying cancerous lesions in their early stages and providing treatment prior to progression to more invasive disease.
Elizabeth Matilda "Tilli" Tansey is a British neurochemist who is an Emerita Professor of the history of medicine and former neurochemist, best known for her role in the Wellcome Trust's witness seminars. She previously worked at Queen Mary University of London (QMUL).
The History of Modern Biomedicine Research Group (HoMBRG) is an academic organisation specialising in recording and publishing the oral history of twentieth and twenty-first century biomedicine. It was established in 1990 as the Wellcome Trust's History of Twentieth Century Medicine Group, and reconstituted in October 2010 as part of the School of History at Queen Mary University of London.
Vaginal adenosis is a benign abnormality in the vagina, commonly thought to be caused by intrauterine and neonatal exposure of diethylstilbestrol and other progestogens and nonsteroidal estrogens, however it has also been observed in otherwise healthy women and has been considered at times idiopathic or congenital. Postpubertal lesions have also been observed to grow de novo. It has a rather common incidence, of about 10% of adult women.
Microglandular hyperplasia (MGH) of the cervix is an epithelial benign abnormality (lesion) associated with gland proliferation. It can terminate in mature squamous metaplasia, and it is suspected reserve cells are involved in this process, perhaps in the form of reserve cell hyperplasia with glandular differentiation.
Miguel A. Sanchez is a board-certified pathologist who specializes in anatomic pathology, clinical pathology and cytopathology. Sanchez is chief of pathology and medical director of The Leslie Simon Breast Care and Cytodiagnosis Center at Englewood Hospital and Medical Center in Englewood, New Jersey. He is best known for his contribution in setting the standards of diagnosis and treatment of breast and thyroid disease praised by the United States Congress in 1994.
Dr Ian Duncan is a British gynaecological oncologist.
Peter Maxwell Howley is an American pathologist, virologist, and professor at Harvard Medical School. He has been president of the American Society for Virology and the American Society for Investigative Pathology and a co-editor of the Annual Review of Pathology: Mechanisms of Disease.
References
- ↑ Overy, C.; Wilkinson, A.; Tansey, E.M. (2017). Makers of Modern Biomedicine: A Register (PDF). Vol. 63. London: The Trustee of the Wellcome Trust. p. 25. ISBN 978-1-910195-30-7.
- 1 2 3 4 Lois Reynolds; Tilli Tansey, eds. (2009). History of Cervical Cancer and the Role of the Human Papillomavirus, 1960-2000. Wellcome Witnesses to Contemporary Medicine. History of Modern Biomedicine Research Group. ISBN 978-0-85484-123-3. Wikidata Q29581772.
- ↑ "People". www.eurocytology.eu. Retrieved 4 July 2017.
- ↑ Herbert, Amanda (15 January 2008). "A message from the new Editor". Cytopathology. 19 (1): 3. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2303.2007.00546.x.
- ↑ Bulten, Johan; Horvat, Reinard; Jordan, Joe; Herbert, Amanda; Wiener, Helene; Arbyn, Marc (1 June 2011). "European guidelines for quality assurance in cervical histopathology". Acta Oncologica. 50 (5): 611–620. doi:10.3109/0284186x.2011.555779. ISSN 0284-186X. PMID 21314297.
- ↑ Gleeson, Michael; Herbert, Amanda; Richards, Aurelia (2000). "Management Of Lateral Neck Masses In Adults". BMJ: British Medical Journal. 320 (7248): 1521–1524. doi:10.1136/bmj.320.7248.1521. JSTOR 25224713. PMC 1118107 . PMID 10834900.
- ↑ Herbert, A.; Johnson, J.; Patnick, J. (1 October 1995). "Achievable standards, benchmarks for reporting and criteria for evaluating cervical cytopathology". Cytopathology. 6 (5): 301–303. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2303.1995.tb00575.x. ISSN 1365-2303.
- ↑ Herbert, Amanda; Wright, Dennis H.; Isaacson, Peter G.; Smith, John L. (1984). "Primary malignant lymphoma of the lung: Histopathologic and immunologic evaluation of nine cases". Human Pathology. 15 (5): 415–422. doi:10.1016/s0046-8177(84)80074-x. PMID 6373559.
- ↑ Lanham, Stuart; Herbert, Amanda; Basarab, Adriana; Watt, Peter (1 August 2001). "Detection of Cervical Infections in Colposcopy Clinic Patients". Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 39 (8): 2946–2950. doi:10.1128/JCM.39.8.2946-2950.2001. ISSN 0095-1137. PMC 88265 . PMID 11474018.
- ↑ Herbert, Amanda; Holdsworth, Gillian; Kubba, Ali A. (1 January 2008). "Cervical screening: why young women should be encouraged to be screened". Journal of Family Planning and Reproductive Health Care. 34 (1): 21–25. doi: 10.1783/147118908783332078 . ISSN 1471-1893. PMID 18201402.
- ↑ Luxton, Jenny C.; Nath, Rahul; Derias, Nawal; Herbert, Amanda; Shepherd, Philip S. (2003). "Human papillomavirus type 16-specific T cell responses and their association with recurrence of cervical disease following treatment". Journal of General Virology. 84 (5): 1063–1070. doi: 10.1099/vir.0.18931-0 . PMID 12692269.
- ↑ Herbert, Amanda; Stein, K; Bryant, T N; Breen, Catherine; Old, P (1 September 1996). "Relation between the Incidence of Invasive Cervical Cancer and the Screening Interval: Is a Five Year Interval Too Long?". Journal of Medical Screening. 3 (3): 140–145. doi: 10.1177/096914139600300307 . ISSN 0969-1413. PMID 8946309.
- ↑ Herbert, Amanda; Walters, M. T.; Cawley, M. I. D.; Godfrey, R. C. (1 June 1985). "Lymphocytic interstitial pneumonia identified as lymphoma of mucosa associated lymphoid tissue". The Journal of Pathology. 146 (2): 129–138. doi:10.1002/path.1711460208. ISSN 1096-9896. PMID 3891940.
- ↑ Herbert, A.; Gallagher, P. J. (1 November 1982). "Pleural biopsy in the diagnosis of malignant mesothelioma". Thorax. 37 (11): 816–821. doi:10.1136/thx.37.11.816. ISSN 0040-6376. PMC 459433 . PMID 7163999.
