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Science in the medieval Islamic world was the science developed and practised during the Islamic Golden Age under the Abbasid Caliphate of Baghdad, the Umayyads of Córdoba, the Abbadids of Seville, the Samanids, the Ziyarids and the Buyids in Persia and beyond, spanning the period roughly between 786 and 1258. Islamic scientific achievements encompassed a wide range of subject areas, especially astronomy, mathematics, and medicine. Other subjects of scientific inquiry included alchemy and chemistry, botany and agronomy, geography and cartography, ophthalmology, pharmacology, physics, and zoology.
The Mozarabs, or more precisely Andalusi Christians, were the Christians of al-Andalus, or the territories of Iberia under Muslim rule from 711 to 1492. Following the Umayyad conquest of the Visigothic Kingdom in Hispania, the Christian population of much of Iberia came under Muslim control.
Al-Andalus was the Muslim-ruled area of the Iberian Peninsula. The term is used by modern historians for the former Islamic states in modern-day Gibraltar, Portugal, Spain, and Southern France. The name describes the different Muslim states that controlled these territories at various times between 711 and 1492. At its greatest geographical extent, it occupied most of the peninsula and part of present-day southern France (Septimania) under Umayyad rule. These boundaries changed constantly through a series of conquests Western historiography has traditionally characterized as the Reconquista, eventually shrinking to the south and finally to the Emirate of Granada.
Andalusi classical music, also called Andalusi music or Arab-Andalusian music, is a genre of music originally developed in al-Andalus by the Muslim population of the region and the Moors. It then spread and influenced many different styles across the Maghreb after the Expulsion of the Moriscos. It originated in the music of al-Andalus between the 9th and 15th centuries. Some of its poems derive from famous authors such as al-Mu'tamid ibn Abbad, Ibn Khafaja, al-Shushtari, and Ibn al-Khatib.
The Emirate of Córdoba or Umayyad Emirate of Córdoba was a medieval Islamic kingdom in the Iberian Peninsula.
The history of plant systematics—the biological classification of plants—stretches from the work of ancient Greek to modern evolutionary biologists. As a field of science, plant systematics came into being only slowly, early plant lore usually being treated as part of the study of medicine. Later, classification and description was driven by natural history and natural theology. Until the advent of the theory of evolution, nearly all classification was based on the scala naturae. The professionalization of botany in the 18th and 19th century marked a shift toward more holistic classification methods, eventually based on evolutionary relationships.
Moorish architecture is a style within Islamic architecture which developed in the western Islamic world, including al-Andalus and what is now Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia. Scholarly references on Islamic architecture often refer to this architectural tradition in terms such as architecture of the Islamic West or architecture of the Western Islamic lands. The use of the term "Moorish" comes from the historical Western European designation of the Muslim inhabitants of these regions as "Moors". Some references on Islamic art and architecture consider this term to be outdated or contested.
An Islamic garden is generally an expressive estate of land that includes themes of water and shade. Their most identifiable architectural design reflects the charbagh quadrilateral layout with four smaller gardens divided by walkways or flowing water. Unlike English gardens, which are often designed for walking, Islamic gardens are intended for rest, reflection, and contemplation. A major focus of the Islamic gardens was to provide a sensory experience, which was accomplished through the use of water and aromatic plants.
Ibn al-'Awwam, also called Abu Zakariya Ibn al-Awwam, was a Muslim Arab agriculturist who flourished at Seville in the later 12th century. He wrote a lengthy handbook on agriculture entitled in Arabic Kitāb al-Filāḥa, which is the most comprehensive treatment of the subject in medieval Arabic, and one of the most important medieval works on the subject in any language. It was published in Spanish and French translations in the 19th century. The edition in French is about 1350 pages.
The Arab Agricultural Revolution was the transformation in agriculture in the Old World during the Islamic Golden Age. The agronomic literature of the time, with major books by Ibn Bassal and Abū l-Khayr al-Ishbīlī, demonstrates the extensive diffusion of useful plants to Medieval Spain (al-Andalus), and the growth in Islamic scientific knowledge of agriculture and horticulture. Medieval Arab historians and geographers described al-Andalus as a fertile and prosperous region with abundant water, full of fruit from trees such as the olive and pomegranate. Archaeological evidence demonstrates improvements in animal husbandry and in irrigation such as with the saqiyah waterwheel. These changes made agriculture far more productive, supporting population growth, urbanisation, and increased stratification of society.
Ṣāʿid al-Andalusī, in full Abū al-Qāsim Ṣāʿid ibn Abū al-Walīd Aḥmad ibn Abd al-Raḥmān ibn Muḥammad ibn Ṣāʿid ibn ʿUthmān al-Taghlibi al-Qūrtūbi, was an Arab qadi of Toledo in al-Andalus, who wrote on the history of science, philosophy and thought. He was a mathematician and scientist with a special interest in astronomy and compiled a famous biographic encyclopedia of science that quickly became popular in the empire and the Islamic East.
Ibn Bassal was an 11th-century Andalusian Arab botanist and agronomist in Toledo and Seville, Spain who wrote about horticulture and arboriculture. He is best known for his book on agronomy, the Dīwān al-filāha.
Abu al‐Qasim Ahmad ibn Abd Allah ibn Umar al‐Ghafiqī ibn as-Saffar al‐Andalusi, also known as Ibn as-Saffar, was a Spanish-Arab astronomer in Al-Andalus. He worked at the school founded by his colleague Al-Majriti in Córdoba. His best-known work was a treatise on the astrolabe, a text that was in active use until the 15th century and influenced the work of Kepler. He also wrote a commentary on the Zij as-Sindhind, and measured the coordinates of Mecca.
Al-Tighnari was an Andalusian Arab Muslim agronomist, botanist, poet, traveler, and physician. Al-Tighnari wrote a treatise on agronomy called Zuhrat al-Bustān wa-Nuzhat al-Adhhān. In the book, he described his journey to the Middle East and shared his observations on agriculture and other topics.
Abu Abd Allah Mohammed ibn Abdun al-Jabali al-Adadi was a physician and mathematician from Al-Andalus. He is the author of Risala fi al-Taksir, the oldest remaining mathematical text from Al-Andalus. He travelled to the learning centers in the East in the years after 958 C.E. He stayed in Basra and visited al-Fustat, Egypt where he was put in charge of the hospital. Ibn Abdun studied the ideas of Abu Sulayman Sijistani and according to one source he met him personally in Basra. He returned to Cordoba in 971 C.E.. He entered the service of the Caliph al-Mustansir and his son Hisham II al-Mu'ayad. Ibn Abdun was the teacher of Ibn al-Kattani.
The Nabataean Agriculture, also written The Nabatean Agriculture, is a 10th-century text on agronomy by Ibn Wahshiyya. It contains information on plants and agriculture, as well as on magic and astrology. It was frequently cited by later Arabic writers on these topics.
Abū al‐Qāsim Aṣbagh ibn Muḥammad ibn al‐Samḥ al‐Gharnāṭī al-Mahri, also known as Ibn al‐Samḥ, was an Arab mathematician and astronomer from Al-Andalus. He worked at the school founded by Al-Majriti in Córdoba, until political unrest forced him to move to Granada, where he was employed by Ḥabbūs ibn Māksan. He is known for treatises on the construction and use of the astrolabe, as well as the first known work on the planetary equatorium. Furthermore, in mathematics he is remembered for a commentary on Euclid and for contributions to early algebra, among other works. He is one of several writers referred to in Latin texts as "Abulcasim."
Abū Jaʿfar al-Ghāfiqī, was an 11th-century Andalusian Arab botanist, pharmacologist, physician and scholar from Ghafiq near Cordoba in the southern Iberian peninsula called al-Andalus, a region of mixed cultures, religions, and languages. In modern literature, he is commonly mistakenly identified as a 12th-century scholar who died around 1165. Nonetheless, the oldest copy of his only known work is dated 1111, implying that he lived at least part of his life in the 11th century. He was responsible for the collating and creating of 'Kitāb fī l-adwiya al-mufrada', a remarkable compendium of some 400 hand-drawn and coloured images of plants and animals, popularly known as the “Herbal of al-Ghafiqi". The Herbal draws on ancient Greek sources like Dioscorides and Galen and more than thirty other works from India and the Hellenistic and Islamic worlds.
The literature of al-Andalus, also known as Andalusi literature, was produced in al-Andalus, or Islamic Iberia, from the Muslim conquest in 711 to either the Catholic conquest of Granada in 1492 or the expulsion of the Moors ending in 1614. Andalusi literature was written primarily in Arabic, but also in Hebrew, Latin, and Romance.
Abu ʾl-Khayr al-Ishbīlī, called al-Shajjār, was an Andalusī agronomist and the author of two Arabic works on agriculture and botany. Little is known of his life. He was born in Seville and lived during the reign of al-Muʿtamid (1069–1091), in whose gardens he probably worked. He was a student of Ibn Baṣṣāl and Ibn al-Lūnquh.
References
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 Middle East Garden Traditions: Unity and Diversity : Questions, Methods and Resources in a Multicultural Perspective Volume 31
- 1 2 3 Zadoks, Jan C. (16 October 2013). Crop Protection in Medieval Agriculture: Studies in Pre-modern Organic Agriculture. Sidestone Press. ISBN 9789088901874.
- ↑ Botanical Progress, Horticultural Innovation and Cultural Changes. Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection. 2007. ISBN 9780884023272.
- ↑ Umdat al-tabib fi ma'rifat al-n abat (Medical support for the knowledge of plants by all experts)
- ↑ "Unity and Diversity : Questions, Methods and Resources in a Multicultural Perspective · Volume 31" (PDF). Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
- ↑ Willis, A.J (2007). The History of Allelopathy. Springer. ISBN 9781402040931.
- ↑ Agricultural and Pastoral Landscapes in Pre-Industrial Society: Choices, Stability and Change. Oxbow Books. 2014. ISBN 9781782970149.
- ↑ The Islamic Villa in Early Medieval Iberia: Architecture and Court Culture in Umayyad Córdoba. Taylor and Francis. 2017. ISBN 9781351543347.
- ↑ Convivencia and Medieval Spain:Essays in Honor of Thomas F. Glick. Springer.