The Beaker culture in Sardinia appeared circa 2100 BC [1] (or according to other datations in 2300 BC or earlier [2] ) during the last phase of the Chalcolithic period. It initially coexisted with and then replaced the previous Monte Claro culture in Sardinia, developing until the Early Bronze Age circa 1900–1800 BC. Then, the Beaker culture mixed with the related Bonnanaro culture, considered the first stage of the Nuragic civilization.
The European Beaker culture is characterized by the use of classic bell-shaped ceramics. The different styles and decorations of these ceramics allow the Sardinian Beaker culture to be split into three main chronological phases: [4]
The various phases show the succession of two main components: the first "Franco-Iberian" (Catalonia and Southern France) and the second "central European" (throughout the Italian peninsula). [5] Thus, it seems likely that the Beaker culture was brought to the island over a long period of time by different waves of migrants from different regions of Europe. [6] Sardinia was in turn the intermediary that brought Beaker materials to Sicily. [7]
Beaker finds have been found at about seventy sites in Sardinia; they are concentrated mostly along the western coast of the island, from the Nurra region to Sulcis-Iglesiente, and in Campidano, with some settlement in the east, in Dorgali and in the Sarrabus. [8]
Almost all Beaker finds are from burials (generally in pre-existing domus de janas, but also documented from individual burials within stone cists at Santa Vittoria-Nuraxinieddu near Oristano). The objects found include, besides the ceramics, the characteristic brassards (stone wrist-guards) to protect the forearms of archers, flint arrowheads and various ornaments including necklaces made of shells or tusks and buttons with a V-shaped perforation.
Metal objects include copper daggers with a triangular blade and pins. Gold artifacts appeared for the first time on the island (collier from the tomb of Bingia 'e Monti of Gonnostramatza).
The old open-air Monte Claro villages disappear almost completely after centuries of occupation (possibly due to climate change [9] or tribal clashes with the newcomers [10] ) and only three settlements specifically attributable to this culture are known (Monte Ossoni in Castelsardo, Monte Ollàdiri in Monastir and Palaggiu in Samassi). This could mean that the Beaker bearers were nomadic people dwelling in tents [10] or caves [9] that depended mainly on the cultivation of wheat and the raising of sheep and goats (diet, as in Great Britain, was characterized by a high intake of animal proteins [11] ). [9]
Beaker-bearing entities may have induced forced migration of the Monte Claro culture in refuge settlement such as Biriai (Oliena). [12]
A unicum in Sardinia is represented by the site of Guardiole, on the island of Caprera. The complex, made up of a large rectangular megalithic enclosure and other buildings, shows evident similarities with the Beaker settlement of Ferrandell Olleza, on the island of Majorca. [13]
The locations where Beaker people may have performed religious rituals are not known. The discovery of Beaker fragments near the megalithic altar of Monte d'Accoddi does not seem to be related to attendance for religious purposes, but rather indicates the sporadic continuity of activity around a monument already abandoned, perhaps following Beaker raids. [14]
The remains of animals in the tomb of Padru Jossu (Sanluri) suggest sacrifices in honor of a lunar deity [10] or the deceased.
One must think that the introduction of the Bell Beaker culture was due to the arrival of a new ethnic group which, although numerically a minority, brought profound changes in the political, economic and religious reality of the island. The new men who came from the sea are linked to pastoral experiences, they bring with them a lunar cult and they try to impose, partially succeeding, their patriarchal and at the same time hierarchical conception of society
— Giovanni Ugas, Facies campaniformi dell'ipogeo di Padru Jossu (1998)
Anthropological studies have shown that the Beakers were of a different physical type (shortheads) to the previous inhabitants of the island (longheads). [15] About 15% of the skulls studied, belonging to this culture, are described as brachycephalic. [15]
At Anghelu Ruju, the height of the individuals of the Beaker and Bonnanaro cultures ranged from 1.42 m to 1.72 m. [16] A preliminary survey of the deceased at the hypogean-megalithic tomb of Pranu Siara (Suelli) has shown that they were characterized by robustness and tall stature. [1]
A genetic study published in Nature Communications in February 2020 examined the remains of a number of individuals identified with the Bell Beaker culture in Sardinia. According to the authors: [17]
While we cannot exclude influx from genetically similar populations (e.g., early Iberian Bell Beakers), the absence of Steppe ancestry suggests genetic isolation from many Bronze Age mainland populations—including later Iberian Bell Beakers.
— Marcus, Joseph H.; et al. (February 24, 2020). "Genetic history from the Middle Neolithic to present on the Mediterranean island of Sardinia"
According to a 2022 study by Rémi Tournebize et al., the appearance of the Bell Beaker culture coincides with a founder effect on the Island (4114 ± 366 years ago). [18]
Another 2022 study by Manjusha Chintalapati et al., found that a moderate steppe-related ancestry arrived in Sardinia in ~2600 BC. [19]
Genetic data appears to support the hypothesis of a patrilocal society. [20]
Gallura is a region in North-Eastern Sardinia, Italy.
The Bell Beaker culture, also known as the Bell Beaker complex or Bell Beaker phenomenon, is an archaeological culture named after the inverted-bell beaker drinking vessel used at the beginning of the European Bronze Age, arising from around 2800 BC.
Domus de Janas are a type of pre-Nuragic rock-cut chamber tomb found in Sardinia. They consist of several chambers quarried out by the people of the San Ciriaco through Ozieri cultures and subsequent cultures, resembling houses in their layout.
Los Millares is a Chalcolithic occupation site 17 km north of Almería, in the municipality of Santa Fe de Mondújar, Andalucía, Spain. The complex was in use from the fourth millennium BC to the end of the third millennium BC and probably supported somewhere around 1000 people. It was discovered in 1891 during the construction of a railway. It was first excavated by Luis Siret in the succeeding years. Excavations are ongoing. Los Millares is the type site of the Chalcolithic Millaran culture.
Sulcis is a subregion of Sardinia, Italy, in the Province of South Sardinia.
A false door, or recessed niche, is an artistic representation of a door which does not function like a real door. They can be carved in a wall or painted on it. They are a common architectural element in the tombs of ancient Egypt, but appeared possibly earlier in some Pre-Nuragic Sardinian tombs known as Domus de Janas. Later they also occur in Etruscan tombs and in the time of ancient Rome they were used in the interiors of both houses and tombs.
The prehistory of Italy began in the Paleolithic period, when members of the genus Homo first inhabited what is now modern Italian territory, and ended in the Iron Age, when the first written records appeared in Italy.
The Nuragic civilization, also known as the Nuragic culture, formed in the Mediterranean island of Sardinia, Italy in the Bronze Age. According to the traditional theory put forward by Giovanni Lilliu in 1966, it developed after multiple migrations from the West of people related to the Beaker culture who conquered and disrupted the local Copper Age cultures; other scholars instead hypothesize an autochthonous origin. It lasted from the 18th century BC, up to the Iron Age or till the Roman colonization in 238 BC. Others date the culture as lasting at least until the 2nd century AD, and in some areas, namely the Barbagia, to the 6th century AD, or possibly even to the 11th century AD. Although it must be remarked that the construction of new nuraghi had already stopped by the 12th-11th century BC, during the Final Bronze Age.
Monte d'Accoddi is a Neolithic archaeological site in northern Sardinia, located in the territory of Sassari, Italy. The site consists of a massive raised stone platform thought to have been an altar. It was constructed by the Ozieri culture or earlier, with the oldest parts dated to around 4,000–3,650 BC.
The Bonnanaro culture is a protohistoric culture that flourished in Sardinia during the 2nd millennium BC, considered to be the first stage of the Nuragic civilization. It takes its name from the comune of Bonnanaro in the province of Sassari where in 1889 the eponymous site was discovered.
The Sardinians, or Sards, are a Romance language-speaking ethnic group indigenous to Sardinia, from which the western Mediterranean island and autonomous region of Italy derives its name.
The Ozieri culture was a prehistoric pre-Nuragic culture that occupied Sardinia from c. 3200 to 2800 BCE. The Ozieri was the culmination of the island's Neolithic culture and takes its name from the locality where early findings connected with it have been found, the cave of San Michele near Ozieri, in northern Sardinia. The Ozieri existed contemporaneously with the Arzachena culture, sharing some similarities, and its influence also extended to nearby Corsica.
The Giants of Mont'e Prama are ancient stone sculptures created by the Nuragic civilization of Sardinia, Italy. Fragmented into numerous pieces, they were discovered in March 1974 on farmland near Mont'e Prama, in the comune of Cabras, province of Oristano, in central-western Sardinia. The statues are carved in local sandstone and their height varies between 2 and 2.5 meters.
The Monte Claro culture was a Chalcolithic culture that spread throughout the island of Sardinia around the second half of the 3rd millennium BC. It takes its name from a hill located in the city of Cagliari, where important discoveries were made.
The Pre-Nuragic period refers to the prehistory of Sardinia from the Paleolithic until the middle Bronze Age, when the Nuragic civilization flourished on the island.
The necropolis of Anghelu Ruju is a pre-Nuragic archaeological site located north of the city of Alghero, Province of Sassari, Sardinia. It is the largest necropolis of pre-Nuragic Sardinia.
The necropolis of Montessu is an archaeological site located in the municipality of Villaperuccio, Sardinia.
The tomb or hypogeum of Padru Jossu is a prenuragic archaeological site situated in the territory of Sanluri, in the province of Medio Campidano.
The necropolis of Is Loccis-Santus is an archaeological site located in the municipality of San Giovanni Suergiu, Sardinia.
The necropolis of Santu Pedru is an archaeological site of the municipality of Alghero, Sardinia.