The Beaker culture in Sardinia appeared circa 2100 BC (or according to other datations in 2300 BC or earlier [1] ) during the last phase of the Chalcolithic period. It initially coexisted with and then replaced the previous Monte Claro culture in Sardinia, developing until the ancient Bronze Age circa 1900–1800 BC. Then, the Beaker culture mixed with the related Bonnanaro culture, considered the first stage of the Nuragic civilization.
The European Beaker culture is characterized by the use of classic bell-shaped ceramics. The different styles and decorations of these ceramics allow the Sardinian Beaker culture to be split into three main chronological phases: [3]
The various phases show the succession of two main components: the first "Franco-Iberian" (Catalonia and Southern France) and the second "central European" (throughout the Italian peninsula). [4] Thus, it seems likely that the Beaker culture was brought to the island over a long period of time by different waves of migrants from different regions of Europe. [5] Sardinia was in turn the intermediary that brought Beaker materials to Sicily. [6]
Beaker finds have been found at about seventy sites in Sardinia; they are concentrated mostly along the western coast of the island, from the Nurra region to Sulcis-Iglesiente, and in Campidano, with some settlement in the east, in Dorgali and in the Sarrabus. [7]
Almost all Beaker finds are from burials (generally in pre-existing domus de janas, but also documented from individual burials within stone cists at Santa Vittoria-Nuraxinieddu near Oristano). The objects found include, besides the ceramics, the characteristic brassards (stone wrist-guards) to protect the forearms of archers, flint arrowheads and various ornaments including necklaces made of shells or tusks and buttons with a V-shaped perforation.
Metal objects include copper daggers with a triangular blade and pins. Gold artifacts appeared for the first time on the island (collier from the tomb of Bingia 'e Monti of Gonnostramatza).
The old open-air Monte Claro villages disappear almost completely after centuries of occupation (possibly due to climate change [8] or tribal clashes with the newcomers [9] ) and only three settlements specifically attributable to this culture are known (Monte Ossoni in Castelsardo, Monte Ollàdiri in Monastir and Palaggiu in Samassi). This could mean that the Beaker bearers were nomadic people dwelling in tents [9] or caves [8] that depended mainly on the cultivation of wheat and the raising of sheep and goats. [8]
Beaker-bearing entities may have induced forced migration of the Monte Claro culture in refuge settlement such as Biriai (Oliena). [10]
A unicum in Sardinia is represented by the site of Guardiole, on the island of Caprera. The complex, made up of a large rectangular megalithic enclosure and other buildings, shows evident similarities with the Beaker settlement of Ferrandell Olleza, on the island of Majorca. [11]
The locations where Beaker people may have performed religious rituals are not known. The discovery of Beaker fragments near the megalithic altar of Monte d'Accoddi does not seem to be related to attendance for religious purposes, but rather indicates the sporadic continuity of activity around a monument already abandoned, perhaps following Beaker raids. [12]
The remains of animals in the tomb of Padru Jossu (Sanluri) suggest sacrifices in honor of a lunar deity [9] or the deceased.
Anthropological studies have shown that the Beakers were of a different physical type (roundheads) to the previous inhabitants of the island (longheads). [13]
A genetic study published in Nature Communications in February 2020 examined the remains of a number of individuals identified with the Bell Beaker culture in Sardinia. According to the authors: [14]
While we cannot exclude influx from genetically similar populations (e.g., early Iberian Bell Beakers), the absence of Steppe ancestry suggests genetic isolation from many Bronze Age mainland populations—including later Iberian Bell Beakers.
— Marcus, Joseph H.; et al. (February 24, 2020). "Genetic history from the Middle Neolithic to present on the Mediterranean island of Sardinia"
According to a 2022 study by Rémi Tournebize et al., the appearance of the Bell Beaker culture coincides with a founder effect on the Island (4114 ± 366 years ago). [15]
Another 2022 study by Manjusha Chintalapati et al., found that a moderate steppe-related ancestry arrived in Sardinia in ~2600 BC. [16]
Archaeological evidence of prehistoric human settlement on the island of Sardinia is present in the form of nuraghes and other prehistoric monuments, which dot the land. The recorded history of Sardinia begins with its contacts with the various people who sought to dominate western Mediterranean trade in classical antiquity: Phoenicians, Punics and Romans. Initially under the political and economic alliance with the Phoenician cities, it was partly conquered by Carthage in the late 6th century BC and then entirely by Rome after the First Punic War. The island was included for centuries in the Roman province of Sardinia and Corsica, which would be incorporated into the diocese of Italia suburbicaria in 3rd and 7th centuries.
The Bell Beaker culture, also known as the Bell Beaker complex or Bell Beaker phenomenon, is an archaeological culture named after the inverted-bell beaker drinking vessel used at the very beginning of the European Bronze Age, arising from around 2800 BC. Bell Beaker culture lasted in Britain from c. 2450 BC, with the appearance of single burial graves, until as late as 1800 BC, but in continental Europe only until 2300 BC, when it was succeeded by the Unetice culture. The culture was widely dispersed throughout Western Europe, being present in many regions of Iberia and stretching eastward to the Danubian plains, and northward to the islands of Great Britain and Ireland, and was also present in the islands of Sardinia and Sicily and some coastal areas in north-western Africa. The Bell Beaker phenomenon shows substantial regional variation, and a study from 2018 found that it was associated with genetically diverse populations.
Domus de Janas are a type of pre-Nuragic rock-cut chamber tomb found in Sardinia. They consist of several chambers quarried out by the people of the San Ciriaco through Ozieri cultures and subsequent cultures, resembling houses in their layout.
Sulcis is a subregion of Sardinia, Italy, in the Province of South Sardinia.
The prehistory of Italy began in the Paleolithic period, when species of Homo colonized the Italian territory for the first time, and ended in the Iron Age, when the first written records appeared in Italy.
The Nuragic civilization, also known as the Nuragic culture, was a civilization or culture on the Mediterranean island of Sardinia, Italy, which lasted from the 18th century BC up to the Roman colonization in 238 BC. Others date the culture as lasting at least until the 2nd century AD and in some areas, namely the Barbagia, to the 6th century AD or possibly even to the 11th century AD.
Monte d'Accoddi is a Neolithic archaeological site in northern Sardinia, located in the territory of Sassari. The site consists of a massive raised stone platform thought to have been an altar. It was constructed by the Ozieri culture or earlier, with the oldest parts dated to around 4,000–3,650 BC.
The Bonnanaro culture is a protohistoric culture that flourished in Sardinia during the 2nd millennium BC, considered to be the first stage of the Nuragic civilization. It takes its name from the comune of Bonnanaro in the province of Sassari where in 1889 the eponymous site was discovered.
Paleo-Sardinian, also known as Proto-Sardinian or Nuragic, is an extinct language, or perhaps set of languages, spoken on the Mediterranean island of Sardinia by the ancient Sardinian population during the Nuragic era. Starting from the Roman conquest with the establishment of a specific province, a process of language shift took place, wherein Latin came slowly to be the only language spoken by the islanders. Paleo-Sardinian is thought to have left traces in the island's onomastics as well as toponyms, which appear to preserve grammatical suffixes, and a number of words in the modern Sardinian language.
The Ozieri culture was a prehistoric pre-Nuragic culture that occupied Sardinia from c. 3200 to 2800 BCE. The Ozieri was the culmination of the island's Neolithic culture and takes its name from the locality where early findings connected with it have been found, the cave of San Michele near Ozieri, in northern Sardinia. The Ozieri existed contemporaneously with the Arzachena culture, sharing some similarities, and its influence also extended to nearby Corsica.
The Giants of Mont'e Prama are ancient stone sculptures created by the Nuragic civilization of Sardinia, Italy. Fragmented into numerous pieces, they were discovered in March 1974 on farmland near Mont'e Prama, in the comune of Cabras, province of Oristano, in central-western Sardinia. The statues are carved in local sandstone and their height varies between 2 and 2.5 meters.
The Monte Claro culture was a Chalcolithic culture that spread throughout the island of Sardinia around the second half of the 3rd millennium BC. It takes its name from a hill located in the city of Cagliari, where important discoveries were made.
The Pre-Nuragic period refers to the prehistory of Sardinia from the Paleolithic until the middle Bronze Age, when the Nuragic civilization flourished on the island.
The necropolis of Anghelu Ruju is a pre-Nuragic archaeological site located north of the city of Alghero, Province of Sassari, Sardinia. It is the largest necropolis of pre-Nuragic Sardinia.
The necropolis of Montessu is an archaeological site located in the municipality of Villaperuccio, Sardinia.
The San Ciriaco culture, sometimes also called San Ciriaco Phase, is a middle neolithic, pre-Nuragic culture from Sardinia and roughly dates to the second half of the 5th millennium BC. It is named after a locality in the territory of Terralba, in the province of Oristano.
The necropolis of Is Loccis-Santus is an archaeological site located in the municipality of San Giovanni Suergiu, Sardinia.
The Bonuighinu culture or Bonu Ighinu culture, sometimes also called Bonu Ighinu Phase, is a middle neolithic, pre-Nuragic culture from Sardinia and roughly dates to the first half of the 5th millennium BC. It takes its name from a locality in the municipality of Mara, province of Sassari, where the cave of Sa de Ucca of Tintirriolu is located. The first Bonu Ighinu pottery was discovered here by Renato Loria and David H. Trump in 1971.
The necropolis of Santu Pedru is an archaeological site of the municipality of Alghero, Sardinia.