History of Sardinia |
The Pre-Nuragic period refers to the prehistory of Sardinia from the Paleolithic until the middle Bronze Age, when the Nuragic civilization flourished on the island.
Since writing had not yet been invented, the only source of information on man's lifestyles in this period is therefore archaeological data. In particular, objects, artefacts, tangible traces that present characteristics that can be considered an expression of the material culture of a population or ethnic group. [1]
The discovery of Paleolithic lithic workshops indicate a human presence in Sardinia in the period between 450,000 and 10,000 years ago.
According to the researchers, a hominid nicknamed "Nur" was the first to colonize the current territory of the island about 250,000 years ago, in the Lower Paleolithic; based on studies of a phalanx found in the Nùrighe caves of Cheremule, the researchers supposed that he may have been a pre-Neanderthal, [2] but some have expressed doubts, assuming a morphological distance from hominids. [3]
During the last ice age sea levels were lower by about 130 meters; at that time Sardinia and Corsica formed a single large island, separated from Tuscany only by a narrow arm of sea.
The oldest remains of Homo sapiens in Sardinia date back to the Upper Paleolithic; their tracks have been found in the central part of Sardinia in the "Corbeddu cave" of Oliena. [4]
Mesolithic human remains have been found at the "Su Coloru cave" of Laerru, in northern Sardinia (Anglona). [5] The material culture suggest that these people came to Sardinia from the Italian peninsula after a difficult navigation with rudimentary boats. [4]
The oldest complete human skeleton (renamed "Amsicora") was found in 2011 in the territory of Arbus, it dates back to about 7,000 BC, the period of transition between the Mesolithic and the Neolithic. [6]
The culture of Su Carroppu represents the earliest phase of the Neolithic in Sardinia (6th millennium BC). Since 1968, the excavations carried out by archaeologists Enrico Atzeni and Gérard Bailloud in a rock shelter on the limestone hills in the territory of Sirri called "Su Carroppu", found various coarse ceramics of a black-grey color decorated with the imprint of Cerastoderma edule along with tools made of obsidian from the Monte Arci. [7]
There were also found the remains of ancient meals, with the discovery of bones of animals such as deer, Prolagus sardus, wild boar, thus documenting an economy based on farming, hunting and fishing. The presence of two human skeletons, along with ornaments made of shells, according to the researchers witnessed the customs of burial cave.
The culture of Su Carroppu has correspondence in Corsica, the Italian Peninsula and the Iberian Peninsula, but especially the findings in Sardinia and Corsica confirm the key role of these two islands to understanding the neolithization of the north-west Mediterranean Sea. [8]
The Grotta Verde culture is named after a cave located at Capo Caccia near Alghero, where important finds were made in 1979. It has been dated to the second phase of the Early Neolithic in the mid-fifth millennium BC . [7]
This culture was present in the north-west part of Sardinia and was characterized by the production of refined pottery, decorated with a toothed tool . [7]
On a vase found in the cave the handles depicted, in a stylized manner, human heads with small nose, eyes and mouth played. According to archaeologist Giovanni Lilliu, this would be the first anthropomorphic representation in Sardinian prehistory.
On a wall inside the cave unusual graffiti were also found - another singular testimony to these people.
In 1971 the priest and caver Renato Loria found in the territory of Mara, between Villanova Monteleone and Bosa, a ravine of about sixty square meters. The cave was subsequently investigated by the archaeologists VR Switsur and David H. Trump, who discovered a sequence of different cultures spread over a very long period of time.
The oldest of these cultures has been dated to the late fifth millennium BC; findings show that this culture was developed by people dedicated to agriculture, husbandry, hunting and fishing. The researchers noted the almost complete disappearance of the earlier forms of pottery decoration and the appearance of large greenstone rings, also common in Corsica and the Italian peninsula. These findings led the researchers to argue that during that period the Sardinian populations had close trade relations with the Mediterranean Neolithic communities of southern France, the Iberian Peninsula, the Italian peninsula and Sicily. [9]
The Bonu Ighinu culture prevailed from 4000 BC up to 3400 BC . [10] It takes its name from the "Sanctuary of Our Lady of Bonu Ighinu" ("good neighbor" in Sardinian language), in the municipality of Mara, near which is the "cave of de Tintirriolu", a place in which were discovered a considerable amount of pottery with zoomorphic and anthropomorphic handles. It spread widely throughout most of the island and one of the most important villages was that of "Puisteris" in Mogoro.
It is regarded by archaeologists as the first culture in Sardinia using artificial cavities as graves and is the natural evolution of the previous Filiestru culture, whose cave is located in the same area.
The artifacts related to the village and necropolis of "Cuccuru S'Arrius" show a well-organized society. At this site there have been numerous discoveries of female figurines depicting the so-called "Mother Goddess", whose postulated worship was widespread in much of Europe and in the Mediterranean during the Neolithic, represented in many different ways: standing, sitting, or while breastfeeding. [9] The site "Cuccuru S'Arrius" is indicated by many scholars belonging to the culture of San Ciriaco.
The San Ciriaco culture (3400-3200 BC) characterizes the end of the Middle Neolithic. It is regarded by archaeologists as a cultural link between the Bonuighinu and the Ozieri and is currently undergoing an exact definition. [9]
It takes its name from the Church of St Cyriacus of Terralba, a municipality in the province of Oristano, near which was found a prehistoric village full of evidences.
During this phase were built the first Domus de Janas, [11] a type of hypogean tomb that will spread throughout the island, with the exception of Gallura. [12]
The Arzachena culture interested mainly the Gallura region and some other eastern parts of the island with ramifications also in southern Corsica: for this reason it is also referred as "Corsican-Gallurese cultural aspect".
The large "circular graves" of Gallura mark the debut of the megalithism in Sardinia, one of the oldest in the western Mediterranean. [11] The grave goods included items such as refined cups of soapstone, knives of flint, small triangular hatchets of hardstone and necklace of green soapstone.
The Ozieri culture (3200-2700 BC), also known as the "culture of St. Michael", is named after the homonymous cave in the municipality of Ozieri where were found important evidences. In fact, in that site were found finely crafted vases, elegantly decorated with geometric designs incised on clay and painted with red ocher. The older are round in shape and just finished, while those of a later period are highly stylized and more refined.
Scholars consider this type of pottery as new to the Neolithic Sardinia and until then similar artifacts were considered as typical of the Cyclades islands and Crete. As a result of significant trade with those distant islands, new manufacturing techniques, new knowledge in metallurgy and new lifestyles appeared in Sardinia. These findings demonstrated unequivocally the strong cultural and commercial exchange elapsed between the Sardinians pre-nuragic peoples and Neolithic Greece. [13]
Based on these important findings scholars agree in defining the culture of Ozieri as the first great culture of Sardinia.
The Sub-Ozieri culture (also called "Red Ozieri"), dated between 2850 and 2700 BC, is a continuation, particularly in the central and southern part of Sardinia, [14] of the previous phase of the Late Neolithic.
Obsidian is now rarely used while metallurgy of copper and silver began to spread.
The first place (Abealzu) is at Osilo, the second (Filigosa) at Macomer. This culture developed between 2700 and 2400 BC and was limited to about a dozen sites located in the area of Sassari and a few other in south-central Sardinia. [15]
These populations deified their ancestors with the erection of the statue menhir (mainly located in the central-western Sardinia) and built or restored the large megalithic temple of Monte d'Accoddi, near Sassari, most likely dedicated to the Sun god.
Grave goods included weapons such as daggers of copper, [16] stone hammer-axes and arrowheads of obsidian. [17] Abelzu pottery show similarities with those of the Rinaldone culture. [15]
The Monte Claro culture spread throughout the island between 2400 and 2100 BC. The main innovations are the "oven-shaped" tombs, individual graves that appeared in the Cagliari area, and the great megalithic walls of the central-northern part of the island like that of "Monte Baranta", near Olmedo. [12]
The ceramics show eastern influences in the south and from the Fontbouisse culture (southern France) in the north. [18]
The Beaker culture originated from outside the island; its populations mixed with people of the preceding indigenous cultures. It was diffused mainly along the west coast and the adjacent lowlands while finds in the east coast are scarce and concentrated mainly near Dorgali.
They are identifiable by the manufacturers of refined pottery, and by the use of stone wrist-guard, daggers of copper, bracelets, rings and necklaces of shells or tusks of animals. For the first time gold items appeared in island (Tomb of Bingia 'e Monti, [19] Gonnostramatza).
The Beaker culture in Sardinia was divided in three phases: [20]
In 1800 B.C., the Bonnanaro culture, a regionalization of the previous Beaker culture with influences from the Polada culture of northern Italy, spread throughout the island.
They probably erected the first "protonuraghi" or "pseudonuraghi", but they are few in number compared to the total number of buildings. These "protonuraghi" constitute of a base with a corridor and a staircase to access the terrace.
According to modern archaeogenetic investigations (2020) the Neolithic Sardinians showed a greater affinity with the cardial populations of Iberia and Southern France. In the following Chalcolithic period there is substantial genetic continuity and the proportions of the ancestral components of the Western Hunter-Gatherers and of Early European Farmers remain stable, at ~17% and ~83% respectively. Similarly to the Iberian peninsula and Sicily, and in contrast to central-northern Europe, no significant amount of genes attributable to migrations from the Pontic-Caspian steppe have been identified in Sardinian Beaker individuals. [21] [22]
A 2022 study by Manjusha Chintalapati, Nick Patterson, and Priya Moorjania detected instead an early, modest gene flow from the Western Steppe Herders around 2600 BC. [23]
Phenotypically Pre-Nuragic Sardinians were predominantly brown eyed, dark brown or black haired and with intermediate or mixed skin tone. [24]
Sardinia is the second-largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, after Sicily, and one of the twenty regions of Italy. It is located west of the Italian Peninsula, north of Tunisia and 16.45 km south of the French island of Corsica.
Archaeological evidence of prehistoric human settlement on the island of Sardinia is present in the form of nuraghes and other prehistoric monuments, which dot the land. The recorded history of Sardinia begins with its contacts with the various people who sought to dominate western Mediterranean trade in classical antiquity: Phoenicians, Punics and Romans. Initially under the political and economic alliance with the Phoenician cities, it was partly conquered by Carthage in the late 6th century BC and then entirely by Rome after the First Punic War. The island was included for centuries in the Roman province of Sardinia and Corsica, which would be incorporated into the diocese of Italia suburbicaria in 3rd and 7th centuries.
The Sherden are one of the several ethnic groups the Sea Peoples were said to be composed of, appearing in fragmentary historical and iconographic records from the Eastern Mediterranean in the late 2nd millennium BC.
Domus de Janas are a type of pre-Nuragic rock-cut chamber tomb found in Sardinia. They consist of several chambers quarried out by the people of the San Ciriaco through Ozieri cultures and subsequent cultures, resembling houses in their layout.
The Province of Sardinia and Corsica was an ancient Roman province including the islands of Sardinia and Corsica.
Su Nuraxi is a Nuragic archaeological site in Barumini, Sardinia, Italy. Su Nuraxi simply means "The Nuraghe" in Campidanese, the southern variant of the Sardinian language.
The Nuragic civilization, also known as the Nuragic culture, formed in the Mediterranean island of Sardinia, Italy in the Bronze Age. According to the traditional theory put forward by Giovanni Lilliu in 1966, it developed after multiple migrations from the West of people related to the Beaker culture who conquered and disrupted the local Copper Age cultures; other scholars instead hypothesize an autochthonous origin. It lasted from the 18th century BC, or from the 23rd century BC, up to the Roman colonization in 238 BC. Others date the culture as lasting at least until the 2nd century AD, and in some areas, namely the Barbagia, to the 6th century AD, or possibly even to the 11th century AD. Although it must be remarked that the construction of new nuraghi had already stopped by the 12th-11th century BC, during the Final Bronze Age.
Monte d'Accoddi is a Neolithic archaeological site in northern Sardinia, located in the territory of Sassari, Italy. The site consists of a massive raised stone platform thought to have been an altar. It was constructed by the Ozieri culture or earlier, with the oldest parts dated to around 4,000–3,650 BC.
The Bonnanaro culture is a protohistoric culture that flourished in Sardinia during the 2nd millennium BC, considered to be the first stage of the Nuragic civilization. It takes its name from the comune of Bonnanaro in the province of Sassari where in 1889 the eponymous site was discovered.
The Sardinians, or Sards, are a Romance language-speaking ethnic group native to Sardinia, from which the western Mediterranean island and autonomous region of Italy derives its name.
Paleo-Sardinian, also known as Proto-Sardinian or Nuragic, is an extinct language, or perhaps set of languages, spoken on the Mediterranean island of Sardinia by the ancient Sardinian population during the Nuragic era. Starting from the Roman conquest with the establishment of a specific province, a process of language shift took place, wherein Latin came slowly to be the only language spoken by the islanders. Paleo-Sardinian is thought to have left traces in the island's onomastics as well as toponyms, which appear to preserve grammatical suffixes, and a number of words in the modern Sardinian language.
The Ozieri culture was a prehistoric pre-Nuragic culture that occupied Sardinia from c. 3200 to 2800 BCE. The Ozieri was the culmination of the island's Neolithic culture and takes its name from the locality where early findings connected with it have been found, the cave of San Michele near Ozieri, in northern Sardinia. The Ozieri existed contemporaneously with the Arzachena culture, sharing some similarities, and its influence also extended to nearby Corsica.
The Giants of Mont'e Prama are ancient stone sculptures created by the Nuragic civilization of Sardinia, Italy. Fragmented into numerous pieces, they were discovered in March 1974 on farmland near Mont'e Prama, in the comune of Cabras, province of Oristano, in central-western Sardinia. The statues are carved in local sandstone and their height varies between 2 and 2.5 meters.
The Arzachena culture was a pre-Nuragic culture of the Late Neolithic Age occupying Gallura and part of southern Corsica from approximately the 4th to the 3rd millennium BC. It takes its name from the Sardinian town of Arzachena.
The necropolis of Anghelu Ruju is a pre-Nuragic archaeological site located north of the city of Alghero, Province of Sassari, Sardinia. It is the largest necropolis of pre-Nuragic Sardinia.
The Beaker culture in Sardinia appeared circa 2100 BC during the last phase of the Chalcolithic period. It initially coexisted with and then replaced the previous Monte Claro culture in Sardinia, developing until the ancient Bronze Age circa 1900–1800 BC. Then, the Beaker culture mixed with the related Bonnanaro culture, considered the first stage of the Nuragic civilization.
The San Ciriaco culture, sometimes also called San Ciriaco Phase, is a middle neolithic, pre-Nuragic culture from Sardinia and roughly dates to the second half of the 5th millennium BC. It is named after a locality in the territory of Terralba, in the province of Oristano.
Hampsicora was a Sardo-Punic political leader and landowner of Sardinia, and the leader of the major anti-Roman revolt in the province of 215 BC.
The Bonuighinu culture or Bonu Ighinu culture, sometimes also called Bonu Ighinu Phase, is a middle neolithic, pre-Nuragic culture from Sardinia and roughly dates to the first half of the 5th millennium BC. It takes its name from a locality in the municipality of Mara, province of Sassari, where the cave of Sa de Ucca of Tintirriolu is located. The first Bonu Ighinu pottery was discovered here by Renato Loria and David H. Trump in 1971.
The history of Phoenician and Carthaginian Sardinia deals with two different historical periods between the 9th century BC and the 3rd century BC concerning the peaceful arrival on the island of the first Phoenician merchants and their integration into the Nuragic civilization by bringing new knowledge and technologies, and the subsequent Carthaginian presence aimed at exploiting mineral resources of the Iglesiente and controlling the fertile plains of the Campidano.
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link){{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)