Border security in the United States

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In the United States, border security includes the protection of ports, airports, and the country's 3,017-mile (4,855 km) land border with Canada and 1,933-mile (3,111 km) border with Mexico.

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Central to U.S. national security, border security incorporates responses to issues such as terrorism, illegal immigration, smuggling, and human trafficking. The Department of Homeland Security (DHS), established after the September 11 attacks, is the primary institution responsible for adapting border security measures to counter perceived threats effectively.

The U.S. approach to border security has evolved in response to incidents like the 9/11 terrorist attacks, which triggered extensive policy reforms to increase the resources provided for homeland protection. These reforms also included the tightening of visa issuance procedures and stricter border controls, accompanied by ongoing debate over the balance between open borders and national security, especially on the politically sensitive US-Mexico border.

Historical context

Immediately after the events of September 11, 2001, the Federal Government placed a higher priority on homeland security, such as intelligence reform. Following 9/11, the border security apparatus was heavily scrutinized and became the target of public criticism. Moreover, border security issues drew additional criticism from the public and from senior officials in the government after it emerged that the 9/11 hijackers held temporary U.S tourist visas, [1] which allowed legal entry into the US. [2] Following the 2001 attacks, various measures have been implemented to increase border security, including the creation of the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) in 2002, as well as a number of other new policies and procedures.

Threats of terrorism

Land borders

The sheer sizes of both the Canada–US and Mexico–US borders present the Federal Government's security forces with challenges with regards to their ability to protect the homeland. According to a 2004 report from the Congressional Research Service, there are "great difficulties in securing the many points through which people and goods may enter legally, and the thousands of miles of ‘lines’, thinly guarded stretches of coasts and land borders which entry is illegal." [3]

Given the phenomenon of undocumented migration at the U.S.-Mexico border, some government officials and political candidates have made public statements referring to the threat of terrorists crossing the Southwest border. [4] [5] The Washington Office on Latin America Border Fact Check blog has pointed out that the Mexico section of the State Department's 2012 Country Reports on Terrorism notes that "No known international terrorist organization had an operational presence in Mexico and no terrorist group targeted U.S. citizens in or from Mexican territory". [6] In 2011, the DHS affirmed that it did not have "any credible information on terrorist groups operating along the Southwest border". [7]

Ports

The Federal Government faces threats to national security through its many ports. As part of her testimony at a Congressional Hearing on container security, JayEtta Hecker, Director for Physical Infrastructure Issues at the Government Accountability Office, said "drugs and illegal aliens are routinely smuggled into this country, not only in small boats but also hidden among otherwise legitimate cargoes on large commercial ships. These same pathways are available for exploitation by a terrorist organization or any nation or person wishing to attack us surreptitiously." [8] Ms. Hecker's testimony also touched on the fact that the sheer number of cargo containers that enter the United States augments this threat. [9] According to the March 2008 edition of Scientific American , more than 42 million 20-foot (6.1 m) containers enter U.S. ports each year. [10]

Airports

More than 87 million people enter the U.S. every year through airports, which makes them a primary point of entry for potential terrorists.[ original research? ] For example, in May 2012, the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) revealed that it uncovered a plot to bring down a commercial plane using explosive devices. According to the CIA, these plans belonged to members of Al-Qaeda. [11] [ citation needed ] [12]

Current policies and security mechanisms

Land borders

In a 2008 article for the Manhattan Institute, Rudolph Giuliani argued that border security was one of the most critical issues facing the United States, and should by monitored by a single organization that embraced CompStat, the organizational philosophy of the NYPD. [13] A myriad of agencies guard U.S. land borders, including the United States Border Patrol, U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE), the DHS, and the National Guard. [14]

The DHS has completed nearly 700 miles of fencing along the borders, [15] and, as of 2011, 20,700 border patrol agents were employed to guard the border. [15] [16] In addition, the Border Patrol now has more than 18,300 agents deployed on both the southern and northern border. [16] The DHS uses technology along the border such as unattended ground sensors, truck-mounted mobile surveillance systems, remote video surveillance systems, unmanned aerial systems, fixed- and rotary-wing aircraft, [16] and the Augmented Integrated Surveillance Intelligence System (ISIS). [17]

Ports

From 2001 to 2006, the Federal Government increased funding for port security by 700%. [18] This increase in funding allowed the DHS to implement a defense in depth against external threats. U.S. Customs and Border Protection, the U.S. Coast Guard, Terminal Operator, and the Port Authority shared responsibility for providing security at U.S. ports. In 2006, those agencies screened all cargo entering the country. [18] U.S. Customs and Border Patrol utilized X-ray, gamma ray machines, and radiation detection devices to screen cargo, operating over 680 radiation portal monitors and over 170 large scale non-intrusive inspection devices. In addition, there were more than 600 canine teams that could "identify narcotics, bulk currency, human beings, explosives, agricultural pests, and chemical weapons" working U.S. ports of entry. [18]

Airports

Due to the massive numbers of travelers, and the consequent pressure for airport security mechanisms to be quick, efficient, and effective, the DHS has implemented the Automated Targeting System, a data mining program. The Automated Targeting System works by collecting information from airlines such as passport data, credit card numbers, and identity information. That information is then run against a list of known terrorists, phone numbers connected to terrorist cells, and other pertinent intelligence data. [19]

On November 19, 2001, the United States passed the Aviation and Transportation Security Act, creating the Transportation Security Administration (TSA), and requiring airlines to pass information on all U.S. bound travelers to the DHS. This data is fed into the Automated Targeting System, [20] and helps TSA, FBI, CIA, and other organizations to create the Selectee and No Fly List.

In addition to the ATS System, another mechanism to deter terrorists is utilized in case they are not detected by the flagging protocols. Federal Air Marshals are the law enforcement branch of the Transportation Security Administration. They fly either in uniform or incognito and act as the law enforcement while on board to protect passengers and crew members from criminals and terrorists. [21]

The Secondary Security Screening Selection system flags passengers for extra surveillance while in the airport but does not prohibit them from flying. These individuals, often referred to as "selectees", are pulled aside at security checkpoints and searched thoroughly. Their luggage may be hand searched. Individuals are added to the lists through airport screening processes. Individuals are potentially flagged if they have purchased a ticket in cash, purchased a ticket within the previous 24 hours, purchased a one-way ticket, or arrived with no baggage. [22]

Starting in March 2010, the TSA begin a wide-scale deployment of full body scanners, in addition to metal detectors, to physically screen airline passengers. [23]

No Fly List

The No Fly List, a comprehensive list of individuals prohibited from flying into or out of the United States, has exponentially grown in size. The List existed before 9/11 but only contained the names of 16 people and now lists over one million names. The List includes high-profile individuals such as the Bolivian President and other foreign dignitaries. The List still contains 14 out of the 19 September 11 hijackers and several other deceased individuals. [24]

The system occasionally leads to a "false positive" which is the accidental flagging of individuals that have similar names to suspected terrorists or are on the List for illegitimate reason. In some cases, children under the age of five have been flagged as suspects. It contains many common names such as Gary Smith or Robert Johnson which makes traveling very difficult for all individuals with that name. Several U.S. congressmen have name matches on the list including Senator Ted Kennedy, who has subsequently been stopped at airports. The List does not include the names of individuals involved in the liquid explosive terrorist attack attempt. TSA also reported that some of the names of the most dangerous terrorists are not on the list in case the List is leaked. Daniel Brown, a U.S. Marine returning from Iraq, was denied entry into the United States because his name matched one on the list. He later found out that he had been flagged on a previous flight for having gunpowder residue on his boots which was likely acquired during an earlier tour of duty in Iraq. [25]

Impact of US-Mexico border security policies

Between 2010 and 2012, the DHS seized almost 75% more money, over a third more narcotics, and nearly double the weapons seized between 2006 and 2008 along the south-west border. [26] In the same period, south-west border states have experienced an average 40% drop in violent crime rates, and the four major cities with the lowest crime rates in the US are all in border states. [26]

See also

Related Research Articles

Homeland security is an American national security term for "the national effort to ensure a homeland that is safe, secure, and resilient against terrorism and other hazards where American interests, aspirations, and ways of life can thrive" to the "national effort to prevent terrorist attacks within the United States, reduce the vulnerability of the U.S. to terrorism, and minimize the damage from attacks that do occur." According to an official work published by the Congressional Research Service in 2013, the "Homeland security" term's definition has varied over time.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Transportation Security Administration</span> United States federal government agency

The Transportation Security Administration (TSA) is an agency of the United States Department of Homeland Security (DHS) that has authority over the security of transportation systems within, and connecting to, the United States. It was created as a response to the September 11 attacks to improve airport security procedures and consolidate air travel security under a combined federal law enforcement and regulatory agency.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Janet Napolitano</span> American politician (born 1957)

Janet Ann Napolitano is an American politician, lawyer, and academic administrator. She served as president of the University of California from 2013 to 2020, on the faculty at the Goldman School of Public Policy at the University of California, Berkeley since 2015, the United States secretary of homeland security from 2009 to 2013, and the governor of Arizona from 2003 to 2009.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Airport security</span> Measures to prevent crime at an airport

Airport security includes the techniques and methods used in an attempt to protect passengers, staff, aircraft, and airport property from malicious harm, crime, terrorism, and other threats.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Border checkpoint</span> Passage point on an international border

A border checkpoint is a location on an international border where travelers or goods are inspected and allowed passage through. Authorization often is required to enter a country through its borders. Access-controlled borders often have a limited number of checkpoints where they can be crossed without legal sanctions. Arrangements or treaties may be formed to allow or mandate less restrained crossings. Land border checkpoints can be contrasted with the customs and immigration facilities at seaports, international airports, and other ports of entry.

The Computer-Assisted Passenger Prescreening System (CAPPS) is a counter-terrorism system in place in the United States air travel industry that matches passenger information with other data sources. The United States Transportation Security Administration (TSA) maintains a watchlist, pursuant to 49 USC § 114 (h)(2), of "individuals known to pose, or suspected of posing, a risk of air piracy or terrorism or a threat to airline or passenger safety." The list is used to pre-emptively identify terrorists attempting to buy airline tickets or board aircraft traveling in the United States, and to mitigate perceived threats.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">U.S. Customs and Border Protection</span> American federal law enforcement agency

United States Customs and Border Protection (CBP) is the largest federal law enforcement agency of the United States Department of Homeland Security. It is the country's primary border control organization, charged with regulating and facilitating international trade, collecting import duties, as well as enforcing U.S. regulations, including trade, customs and immigration. CBP is one of the largest law enforcement agencies in the United States. It has a workforce of more than 45,600 federal agents and officers. It is headquartered in Washington, D.C.

The No Fly List, maintained by the United States federal government's Terrorist Screening Center (TSC), is one of several lists included in algorithmic rulesets used by government agencies and airlines to decide who to allow to board airline flights. The TSC's No Fly List is a list of people who are prohibited from boarding commercial aircraft for travel within, into, or out of the United States. This list has also been used to divert aircraft away from U.S. airspace that do not have start- or end-point destinations within the United States. The number of people on the list rises and falls according to threat and intelligence reporting. There were reportedly 16,000 names on the list in 2011, 21,000 in 2012, and 47,000 in 2013.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Federal Air Marshal Service</span> United States federal law enforcement agency

The Federal Air Marshal Service (FAMS) is a United States federal law enforcement agency under the supervision of the Transportation Security Administration (TSA) of the United States Department of Homeland Security (DHS).

Security theater is the practice of implementing security measures that are considered to provide the feeling of improved security while doing little or nothing to achieve it.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">United States border preclearance</span> Border security procedures

United States border preclearance is the United States Department of Homeland Security's (DHS) practice of operating prescreening border control facilities at airports and other ports of departure located outside of the United States pursuant to agreements between the United States and host countries. Travelers are subject to immigration and customs inspections by Customs and Border Protection (CBP) officers before boarding their transportation onward to the United States. Preclearance applies to all passengers regardless of their nationality or purpose of travel. Upon arrival, precleared passengers arrive in the United States as domestic travelers, but may still be subject to re-inspection at the discretion of CBP. This process is intended to streamline border procedures, reduce congestion at American ports of entry, and facilitate travel into airports that otherwise lack immigration and customs processing facilities for commercial flights.

Secure Flight is an airline passenger pre-screening program, implemented from August 2009 by the United States Transportation Security Administration (TSA). Secure Flight matches passenger information against watch lists maintained by the federal government. The initial implementation phase of Secure Flight resulted in the complete transfer of responsibility for passenger watch list matching to TSA from aircraft operators whose flights operate within the United States. The second phase of Secure Flight will result in the transfer of responsibility for passenger watch list matching to TSA for flights into, out of, and over the United States.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Port security</span> Security of commerce ports

Port security is part of a broader definition concerning maritime security. It refers to the defense, law and treaty enforcement, and Counterterrorism activities that fall within the port and maritime domain. It includes the protection of the seaports themselves and the protection and inspection of the cargo moving through the ports. Security risks related to ports often focus on either the physical security of the port, or security risks within the maritime supply chain.

The Automated Targeting System (ATS) is a United States Department of Homeland Security computerized system that, for every person who crosses U.S. borders, scrutinizes a large volume of data related to that person, and then automatically assigns a rating for which the expectation is that it helps gauge whether this person may be placed within a risk group of terrorists or other criminals. Similarly ATS analyzes data related to container cargo.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Global Entry</span> U.S. Customs and Border Protection program

Global Entry is a program of the U.S. Customs and Border Protection service that allows pre-approved, low-risk travelers to receive expedited clearance upon arrival into the United States through automatic kiosks at select airports and via the SENTRI and NEXUS lanes by land and sea. As of May 4, 2018, Global Entry was available at 53 U.S. airports and 15 preclearance locations. By April 2018 more than five million people were enrolled in Global Entry and approximately 50,000 new applications for the program were being filed each month.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Command Consulting Group</span> International security and intelligence consulting firm

Command Group, "CG", founded as Command Consulting Group, is an international security and intelligence consulting firm, founded in 2009, headquartered in Washington, D.C., United States. CG provides advisory services for governments, corporations, and high net worth individuals.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Visible Intermodal Prevention and Response team</span>

A Visible Intermodal Prevention and Response team, sometimes Visible Intermodal Protection and Response (VIPR) is a Transportation Security Administration program. Various government sources have differing descriptions of VIPR's exact mission. It is specifically authorized by 6 U.S.C. § 1112 which says that the program is to "augment the security of any mode of transportation at any location within the United States". Authority for the program is under the Secretary of Homeland Security. The program falls under TSA's Office of Law Enforcement/Federal Air Marshal Service. TSA OLE/FAMS shares responsibility for the program with the Office of Security Operations and Transportation Sector Network Management.

The Traveler Redress Inquiry Program is a program managed by the Department of Homeland Security in the United States that allows people who face security-related troubles traveling by air, receive excessive security scrutiny, or are denied entry to the United States, to file their grievances with and seek redress from the DHS.

Airport privacy involves the right of personal privacy for passengers when it comes to screening procedures, surveillance, and personal data being stored at airports. This practice intertwines airport security measures and privacy specifically the advancement of security measures following the 9/11 attacks in the United States and other global terrorist attacks. Several terrorist attacks, such as 9/11, have led airports all over the world to look to the advancement of new technology such as body and baggage screening, detection dogs, facial recognition, and the use of biometrics in electronic passports. Amidst the introduction of new technology and security measures in airports and the growing rates of travelers there has been a rise of risk and concern in privacy.

References

  1. ↑ "Identity and Immigration Status of 9/11 Terrorists". Federation for American Immigration Reform. February 2004. Retrieved March 14, 2011.
  2. ↑ "Background: U.S. Land Border Crossing Updated Procedures". US Department of Homeland Security. September 16, 2008. Retrieved March 14, 2011. Beginning January 31, 2008 the Department of Homeland Security is: 1. Ending oral declarations at the border, except in extraordinary situations, 2. Accepting a list of about two dozen types of documents at the border instead of the over 8,000 documents currently being accepted
  3. ↑ Frittelli, John F. (2005). Port and Maritime Security: Background and Issues for Congress (PDF) (Report). Congressional Research Service. The terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001 heightened awareness about the vulnerability to terrorist attack of all modes of transportation. Port security has emerged as a significant part of the overall debate on U.S. homeland security. The overarching issues for Congress are providing oversight on current port security programs and making or responding to proposals to improve port security.
  4. ↑ Pallack, Becky (August 29, 2012). "Grijalva slams Saucedo Mercer on 'Middle Easterner' comments (updated)". Arizona Daily Star. Retrieved September 24, 2012.
  5. ↑ Isacson, Adam. "Are terrorists crossing the border "from time to time?"". Border Fact Check. Washington Office on Latin America. Retrieved September 24, 2012.
  6. ↑ "Country Reports on Terrorism: Western Hemisphere Overview". Country Reports on Terrorism. United States Department of State. Retrieved September 24, 2012.
  7. ↑ Goerdt, Ana. "Do terrorists use the U.S.-Mexico border to enter the United States?". Border Fact Check. Washington Office on Latin America. Retrieved September 24, 2012.
  8. ↑ Hecker, JayEtta Z. (November 18, 2002). "Container Security: Current Efforts to Detect Nuclear Materials, New Initiatives, and Challenges" (PDF). United States General Accounting Office. United States Government. p. 3. Retrieved March 15, 2011. As indispensable as the rapid flow of commerce is, the terrorist attacks of September 11th have served to heighten awareness about the supply system's vulnerability to terrorist actions. Drugs and illegal aliens are routinely smuggled into this country, not only in small boats but also hidden among otherwise legitimate cargoes on large commercial ships. These same pathways are available for exploitation by a terrorist organization or any nation or person wishing to attack us surreptitiously. The Brookings Institution reported in 2002 that a weapon of mass destruction shipped by container or mail could cause damage and disruption costing the economy as much as $1 trillion.3 Port vulnerabilities stem from inadequate security measures as well as from the challenge of monitoring the vast and rapidly increasing volume of cargo, persons, and vessels passing through the ports. Against this backdrop, it is not surprising that various assessments of national security have concluded that the nation's ports are far more vulnerable to terrorist attacks than the nation's aviation system, where most of the nation's efforts and resources have been placed since September 11th.
  9. ↑ With more than 6 million containers a year entering U.S. ports, examining them all has not been possible. Instead, Customs has acknowledged that its approach relies on reviewing shipping manifests, invoices and other commercial documents, and intelligence leads to target approximately 2 percent of the containers that enter the country nationwide for physical inspection, though the actual percentage varies from port to port.
  10. ↑ Cochran, Thomas B.; McKinzie, Matthew G. (March 24, 2008). "Detecting Nuclear Smuggling". Scientific American. 298 (4): 98–102, 104. Bibcode:2008SciAm.298d..98C. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0408-98. PMID   18380147 . Retrieved March 15, 2011.
  11. ↑ Alcorn, J. (2012, December 5). Airport security. The New York Times.
  12. ↑ MacLeod, Scott (March 28, 2005). "A Jihadist's Tale". Time Magazine. Time Inc. Archived from the original on March 29, 2005. Retrieved March 15, 2011. After he was denied entry at Chicago's O'Hare International Airport for apparently falsifying details on his visa application, al-Banna's life took a turn that led him down the path of radical Islam and ultimately to join the insurgency against the U.S. in Iraq. His odyssey ended on March 3 when al-Banna's brother Ahmed received a call on his cell phone from a man identifying himself as "one of your brothers from the Arab peninsula"--the term radical Islamists use to signify the core of the Muslim world, centered on the holy city of Mecca. Al-Banna's family says that as far as they knew, Ra'ed was in Saudi Arabia working at a new job. But the voice on the other end sounded Iraqi, Ahmed says. "Congratulations," the caller told him. "Your brother has fallen a martyr."
  13. ↑ Giuliani, Rudolph W. (Winter 2008). "The Resilient Society". City Journal. The Manhattan Institute. Retrieved March 15, 2011. It's also past time to rethink aviation security and to stop frisking toddlers and grandmothers trying to get onto planes. Instead, good intelligence, behavior analysis, biometrics, and trustedtraveler programs can help speed legitimate travelers through airports. For example, I don't think that the Transportation Security Administration needs to spend much time searching Senator Ted Kennedy before he boards a plane—which is what the TSA did in August 2004 because a person on a watch list had a similar name. The federal Terrorist Watch List, which still has incomplete and inaccurate information, needs a serious cleanup.
  14. ↑ Archibold, Randal C. (May 25, 2010). "Obama to Send Up to 1,200 Troops to Border". The New York Times. ISSN   0362-4331 . Retrieved February 22, 2024.
  15. 1 2 Alden, Edward; Roberts, Bryan (June 16, 2011). "Are U.S. Borders Secure?". Foreign Affairs. Vol. 90, no. 4. ISSN   0015-7120 . Retrieved August 16, 2024.
  16. 1 2 3 "Border Security and Immigration Enforcement Fact Sheet". US Departmentr of Homeland Security. October 23, 2008. Archived from the original on March 27, 2011. Retrieved March 14, 2011. Each day at America's ports of entry U.S. Customs and Border Protection officers inspect more than 1.1 million travelers, including 340,000 vehicles and over 85,000 shipments of goods approved for entry; process more than 70,000 truck, rail and sea containers; collect more than $88 million in fees, duties, and tariffs; seize more than 5,500 pounds in illegal narcotics; and intercept more than 4,400 agricultural items and pests at ports of entry.
  17. ↑ "Inspections and Surveillance Technologies – Extended". US Customs and Border Protection. Department of Homeland Security. May 5, 2005. Archived from the original on April 10, 2010. Retrieved March 15, 2011. [ISIS] consist of the Remote Video Surveillance (RVS) camera systems, sensors, and the Integrated Computer Assisted Detection (ICAD) database. ISIS serves to detect intrusion, aid in agent dispatching, and estimating attempts of illegal entry.
  18. 1 2 3 "Fact Sheet: Securing U.S. Ports". Department of Homeland Security. February 22, 2006. Archived from the original on March 27, 2011. Retrieved March 15, 2011. The Administration has dramatically strengthened port security since 9/11. * Funding has increased by more than 700% since September 11, 2001. * Funding for port security was approximately $259 million in FY 2001. * DHS spent approximately $1.6 billion on port security in FY 2005. Following 9/11, the federal government has implemented a multi-layered defense strategy to keep our ports safe and secure. New technologies have been deployed with additional technologies being developed and $630 million has been provided in grants to our largest ports, including $16.2 million to Baltimore; $32.7 million to Miami; $27.4 million to New Orleans, $43.7 million to New York/New Jersey; and $15.8 million to Philadelphia.
  19. ↑ Baker. 7.
  20. ↑ Laurance, Castelli. "Privacy Impact Assessment, CBP Automated Targeting System" (PDF). Department of Homeland Security. Retrieved March 26, 2011. ATS-Passenger (ATS-P) is the module used at all U.S. airports and seaports receiving international flights and voyages to evaluate passengers and crewmembers prior to arrival or departure. It assists the CBP officer's decision-making process about whether a passenger or crewmember should receive additional screening prior to entry into or departure from the country because the traveler may pose a greater risk for violation of U.S. law. The system analyzes the Advance Passenger Information System (APIS) data from TECS, Passenger Name Record (PNR) data from the airlines, TECS crossing data, TECS seizure data, and watched entities. ATS-P processes available information from these databases to develop a risk assessment for each traveler. The risk assessment is based on a set of National- and user-defined rules which are comprised rule sets that pertain to specific operational/tactical objectives or local enforcement efforts.
  21. ↑ "TSA: Frequently Asked Questions." TSA. Nov 16, 2008 < "TSA: Privacy". Archived from the original on April 27, 2007. Retrieved April 22, 2007.>.
  22. ↑ "TSA: Mythbuster." Weblog post. TSA Watch List. July 14, 2007. Nov 16, 2008 <http://www.tsa.gov/blog/2008/07/myth-buster-tsas-watch-list-is-more.html>.
  23. ↑ "Advanced Imaging Technology (AIT)". TSA. Archived from the original on March 11, 2012. Retrieved March 26, 2011.
  24. ↑ The 9/11 Commission Report : Final Report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States. New York: Norton Paperbacks, 2004.
  25. ↑ "'No-fly' list delays Marine's Iraq homecoming". NBC News. April 12, 2006. Retrieved August 16, 2024.
  26. 1 2 "National Southwest Border Counternarcotics Strategy" (PDF). Office of National Drug Control Policy. 2013. Archived (PDF) from the original on January 22, 2017. Retrieved November 20, 2014.
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