Chinese Rhetoric

Last updated February 01, 2025

Chinese rhetoric is the study and application of philosophy to achieve practical social purposes.^[1] The concept of "good writing" is culturally specific, shaped by the norms and values of the society. Chinese theories of persuasive communication have had a significant influence on this practice of social engagement. Since rhetorical contexts vary across different times and cultures, the rhetorical traditions of ancient China—which have developed over more than five millennia—are deeply reflective of its social dynamics and epistemological frameworks. In each dynasty in Chinese history, its societal rhetorical value can be influenced by eminent poet, spokesperson, philosopher, or historian, etc., who proposed and promoted it. In comparison to the Western persuasion of art, which in general prefer utilitarian and modern cultural values, Chinese persuasive rhetoric relies more on relational/positional terms and social status to add to credibility.^[2]

Features of Chinese persuasion value

The nature philosophy is important in Chinese persuasion of art. It can be demonstrated in the rhetorical theories proposed by different figures throughout the ancient dynasties in Chinese history. Often neglected in Western rhetorical tradition, persuasion using pathos is essential and is parallel to the inductive and deductive logic, in Chinese rhetoric. Ethos and pathos are both developed equally as logos and This degree of emotions, in classical Chinese theory, has subtle difference from a psychological mood but more attached to the physical movements and inner balance of heart. Hence, there is gap between this state of 'infection' and the automatic human feelings. Therefore, the emotions appealed from pathos and ethos are deemed as cognitively reasonable, weighing up pros and cons over the convince and thus the rhetoric of pathos and ethos are deemed as valid in their effectiveness to convince.^[3] There is a list of rhetorical traditions and principals, brought up by important figures throughout period of time in history, that echoes the core of Chinese rhetorical values.^[4]

Contributions of rhetorical values by early Chinese philosophers

Fa (Law), Shu (Tactics), Shi (Power)

Han Fei-tzu, 韩非子 298-233 BCE, as a spokesperson for the early Qin dynasty composed works such as Solitani Indignation, The Five Vermin, Having Regulations, The Principal Features of Legalism, and Difficulties in the Way of Persuasion. Han refined and expanded the ideas of earlier legalists into a structured system involving fa (law) （法）, shu (tactics) （书）, and shi (power or authority) （势）. On the one hand, Han's philosophy of legalism carries an inherent rhetorical nature, which functions as a form of civic discourse that integrates language into socio-political practice. On the other hand, his theory of quan-fu (persuasion) represents an explicit rhetorical focus. Commonly interpreted as "the art of persuasion," quan-fu highlights the skillful use of speech to persuade, rooted in rhetorical principles.

Ren (Character and Kindness)

Confucius 孔子 551 BCE-479 BCE emphasized Ren (仁) as one of the 25 essential virtues in ancient China, and he advocated that the rulers were expected to refine their moral character to serve as a role model for society. By doing so, they would inspire the spirits of respect, dignity, and obedience among the people, fostering socio-cultural harmony. His teachings reflect implicit rhetorical principals, particularly the use of ethos. (character and credibility)

Dao (The Way)

Lao tzu 老子 was an important philosopher, ideologist, historian, and litterateur of state of Chu in Spring and Autumn period. Founding the philosophical Daoism（道）, his rhetorical value stressed the power of trust which fosters love and social order. He discouraged using laws and penalties to regulate society order by creating the infection of fear. Instead, he into insisted that the best way for governing citizens is to do nothing. In other words, doing nothing to citizens is to trust them. The essence of Dao is to maintain society order by just letting things be. In terms of rhetoric, this means persuading people the benefits of something by building one's own character and serve as a model. In the macroscopical view of history, this way of persuasion might have limitations, but Daoism truly affected the rhetorical tradition over the Spring and Autumn period of ancient China.^[5]

List of promoted philosophical virtues

Ren (humanity and kindness)
Dao (the way)
Fa (law)
Shu (tactics)
Shi (Authority and power)

Source:^[5]

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References

↑ Yameng, Liu (1996). "To capture the essence of Chinese rhetoric: An anatomy of a paradigm in comparative rhetoric". Rhetoric Review. 14 (2): 318–335.
↑ Liu, Donghong (2019-08-06). "Comparative rhetoric and emic approaches to Chinese persuasive strategies in hotel discourse". Journal of Asian Pacific Communication. 29 (2): 168–187. doi:10.1075/japc.00029.liu. ISSN 0957-6851.
↑ Garrett, Mary M (1993). "Pathos reconsidered from the perspective of classical Chinese rhetorical theories". Quarterly Journal of Speech. 79 (1): 19–39. doi:10.1080/00335639309384017.
↑ Ziyu, Zheng (1984). Zhongguo Xiucixue Shi Gao [A Draft History of Chinese Rhetoric]. Shanghai: Shanghai Jiaoyu Chubanshe [Shanghai Education P].
1 2 Cai, Guanjun (1998). A Chinese rhetorical tradition? Case studies in the history of Chinese rhetorical theory and practice [doctoral thesis]. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona.

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[1] Yameng, Liu (1996). "To capture the essence of Chinese rhetoric: An anatomy of a paradigm in comparative rhetoric". Rhetoric Review. 14 (2): 318–335.

[2] Liu, Donghong (2019-08-06). "Comparative rhetoric and emic approaches to Chinese persuasive strategies in hotel discourse". Journal of Asian Pacific Communication. 29 (2): 168–187. doi:10.1075/japc.00029.liu. ISSN 0957-6851.

[3] Garrett, Mary M (1993). "Pathos reconsidered from the perspective of classical Chinese rhetorical theories". Quarterly Journal of Speech. 79 (1): 19–39. doi:10.1080/00335639309384017.

[4] Ziyu, Zheng (1984). Zhongguo Xiucixue Shi Gao [A Draft History of Chinese Rhetoric]. Shanghai: Shanghai Jiaoyu Chubanshe [Shanghai Education P].

[:0-5] 1 2 Cai, Guanjun (1998). A Chinese rhetorical tradition? Case studies in the history of Chinese rhetorical theory and practice [doctoral thesis]. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona.

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