Community food security

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Community food security (CFS) is a relatively new concept that captures emerging ideas about the central place of food in communities. At times it refers to the measure of food access and availability at the community level, and at other times to a goal or framework for place-based food systems. It builds upon the more commonly understood concept of food security, which refers to food access and availability at an individual or household level (in health and social policy, for instance) and at a national or global level (e.g., in international development and aid work). [1] [2] Hamm and Bellows (2003) define CFS as “a situation in which all community residents obtain a safe, culturally acceptable, nutritionally adequate diet through a sustainable food system that maximizes community self-reliance and social justice” (p. 37). [3] CFS involves social, economic, and institutional factors, and their interrelationships within a community that impact availability and access to resources to produce food locally. It takes into account environmental sustainability and social fairness through measures of the availability and affordability of food in that community relative to the financial resources available to purchase or produce it. [4]

Contents

CFS' Global Scale

In industrialized countries, income-related food security is measured at both the individual and household levels whereas in non-industrialized countries it is most often measured in terms of under-nutrition and malnutrition through anthropometric measurements. [5] [6] Indicators of individual food insecurity include limited food selection, suboptimal nutrient intakes and severe nutrient inadequacies. [7] Household food insecurity measures food intake of adults and children as a group within the home in relation to household income and food cost expenditure. [8] Markers of vulnerability to food insecurity in Canada and U.S. include low income, reliance on welfare, lone motherhood, lack of home ownership, and Aboriginal status. [7]

In Canada, food security is recognized as one of the most important social determinants of health and has been linked with increased prevalence of chronic diseases such as diabetes, hypertension, and cardiovascular disease. [8] Those who are food insecure most often live in poverty and have great difficulty obtaining the food needed to manage chronic diseases like the ones mentioned previously. [5] Achieving individual and household food security is key to achieving CFS. Whereas individual and household food security can be achieved through use of social policies to improve income distribution, CFS can be attained through food policy. [5] By directly addressing the causes of individual and household food insecurity through social policies, improved access to food for all can exist and in turn improve the health of that community. [5] Moreover, citizens' direct involvement in the production of food, even at a small scale, has been shown to generate health benefits. [9] [10] In addition, achieving CFS can benefit social capital, justice, economic vitality, and sustainability of physical and social environments in that community, all of which contribute to population health. [6]

Efforts to achieve CFS differ from other food security initiatives (e.g., nutrient supplementation or food assistance programs) in that they view the issue at a local level by concentrating on community infrastructure and local food systems, and vary according to different community needs. [3] Hamm and Bellows purport that “food security is experienced most poignantly and addressed most innovatively at the community level” (p. 37). [3] Some of the existing CFS initiatives, such as identifying food costs and quality in low-income neighbourhoods, also seek to provide the evidence needed to make changes in policy. [11] This further improves the health of citizens by providing sufficient access to nutritious foods for all and improving access to resources needed to produce and process the food locally. [12]

History

The term food security was first used in the 1960-1970s to refer to food supply and consistent access to food in international development work. [13] In 1966 the treaty titled the United Nations International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights was created to ensure economic, social and cultural rights including the “inalienable right to adequate nutritious food”. [14] In 1974 the World Food Conference focused on producing enough food for the world, ensuring the supply was reliable, and reducing dramatic price fluctuations. [13] Even early on it was clear that there was a great discrepancy between the world's food supply and people's access to food. Advances in agricultural technology in non-industrialized countries resulting in production of more food did not necessarily result in improved food access as evidenced by the Green Revolution. Rather, many environmental problems such as insecticide-resistant pests, soil erosion, and pesticide poisoning of both people and wildlife resulted.

During the 1980s and 1990s food security became recognized as a major public health concern in industrialized countries. [15] The concept of food entitlement was introduced in 1981 along with a shift in focus to ensured food access with adequate supply at the individual or household level in industrialized nations. [13] Food security was measured directly by anthropometric means or by food intake assessment, and indirectly by indicators of poverty, comparison of wages to food costs, employment rates and the use of emergency food programs. [13] At the 1996 World Food Summit, the Rome Declaration on World Food Security reaffirmed, “the right of everyone to have access to safe and nutritious food, consistent with the right to adequate food and the fundamental right of everyone to be free from hunger”. [16] Throughout the 1980s and 1990s most responses to food insecurity tended to occur at the community level. [6] [15] Community-level initiatives allowed for more long-lasting solutions to food issues as they were designed to empower individuals and increase knowledge and skills as opposed to providing only a temporary solution to food access. These efforts contributed largely to the evolution of the concept of CFS in the 1990s when environmental concerns were gaining recognition. [13] The emerging concept of CFS captured the central idea that addressing food security at the community level would allow more interested parties to become involved in the decision-making and planning process as well as enable a larger range of issues to be addressed such as environmentally sustainable food production, fair wages for local producers, and more sustainable food assistance programs. [13]

CFS dimensions

Measuring CFS is difficult due to its multifaceted nature and the complexity of the issue, a lack of standardized tools, and because of the diversity of needs across different communities. [13] [17] In order to better understand what influences CFS, the concept can be considered to comprise four key dimensions— personal and household food security, food environments, sustainability, and strength of local food system. It is important, however, to think of these four dimensions as interrelated and not discrete.

Personal and household food security

The Canadian Home Economics Association (1991) and the Centre for Studies in Food Security at Ryerson University have identified five preconditions for food security: availability, accessibility, adequacy, acceptability and agency. [18] [19] Availability refers to sufficient access to food; accessibility refers to physical and economic access to food; adequacy refers to safe and nutritious access to food in an environmentally sustainable manner; acceptability refers to culturally appropriate food that does not harm one's dignity, self-respect or human rights; and finally agency refers to the democratic processes involved in changing policies to enable food security. Originally the list created by the Canadian Home Economics Association only contained the first four. More recently several organizations around the world added the fifth A, agency. Agency is extremely important in CFS as it reflects community members’ ability to influence policy directly related to food security as both individuals and as a collective.

Food environments

CFS is largely determined by the overall well-being of a community including multiple economic and social factors within the food environment. The food environment refers to the many conditions that affect food choice and access. [20] The following are examples of food environments that affect CFS.

Sustainability

In order for a community to achieve CFS all citizens must be able to obtain food in a socially, economically, and environmentally sustainable way to maximize community self-reliance. [3] Creating this situation involves growing food in an environmentally sustainable way and having fair liveable wages for local workers, producers, and processors so they can not only continue to produce food for the community but also participate in the system as members of the community. [22] It also means that all members of the food system actively participate in the decision-making processes that influence the "availability, cost, price, quality, and attributes of their food." [22]

The Community Food Security Coalition recognizes six major principles to increase the sustainability of the food system. [23]

Strength of local food system

Although no community is completely self-sufficient, maximizing a community's self-reliance is extremely important for ensuring CFS. Having a self-reliant food system means that food is produced, processed, and controlled locally as much as possible; food sources are multiple and varied, and community members are involved in decision-making. [24] Because unpredictable economic and environmental influences can greatly impact food systems, another important component of CFS is resilience - the ability of a system to withstand and adapt to change or disturbance. In a self-reliant food system, the ecological system is both protected and constantly improving. [25] Resilience is an important component of CFS as unpredictable economic and environmental influences can greatly impact the food system. Resilience is an important component of CFS as unpredictable economic and environmental influences can greatly impact the food system. Ensuring diversity and multiplicity of food sources can help to increase resilience.

Barriers to CFS

There are many barriers to CFS. These barriers relate to the complexity of the concept, the difficulty of data collection, and the lack of political will among those in power to make effective changes a reality.

Complexity

CFS is hard to define, difficult to measure, the understanding of it can vary across different community's needs, wants and values, and a community's capacity and power to achieve it also varies. [13] [17] CFS is also complex because it is tied up with intra-household dynamics, as well with the larger food environment and the strength of the local food system.

Understanding CFS requires seeing the food system as a whole, engaging a variety of actors across the system from producer to consumer/citizen, and, importantly, growing new “next practice solutions” to address ever emerging challenges. [26] [27] CFS is socially complex as it involves participation from individuals of various different perspectives and interests, as well as on multiple scales (e.g. local, national or international).

On the local scale, it is difficult to achieve CFS at both the household and community level. The economic status and economic power of a household may determine the difficulties of attaining CFS. For example, households may have limited opportunities for jobs with higher wages. Household food security is hard to achieve when it is aided solely by conventional food assistance approaches such as food pantries and federal assistance such as food stamps. Non-economic assistance, such as food distribution, carries stigma that may deter households from using them. [28] Additionally, communities may be affected by the influence of corporations and lobbies over food policy, making CFS and changes to the food system more difficult.

Power dynamics are also an important factor in CFS. There are questions such as who has control over the market and economic resources, political power to pass policy to improve food access, and social power to come work together to make change. Race and class play a crucial role in the production, distribution, and consumption of food. Due to store availability, accessibility, and price, many low-income communities cannot meet the food needs required for CFS. [29] Buying power, or lack of it, indicates who within the community has physical and economic access to food. [30]

Collecting data

Due to the complexity of the issue, CFS is not easily measured and there is no standardized measurement tool. [3] A proven and consistent measuring tool ensures validity when collecting data and makes it easier to monitor changes in food security status over time. [7] However, because of the many differences between communities and the reality that communities change over time, it is important to have assessments and evaluation tools tailored to that specific community's needs at a given time. Limited standardization of CFS assessment can deter recognition of CFS as a major health and social concern.

Political will

Both policy and social change are essential to ensure solutions to CFS are implemented and sustainable. [31] [32] Providing political stakeholders with the research evidence needed to show the benefits of increased spending on social policies and programs to improve CFS is difficult. [5] For example, showing that policy measures, such as increases in minimum wage or welfare benefits, can improve food security without strong supporting evidence can be challenging. [3] It is clear that there is a need for more information to be shared with the public in the hopes of improving CFS and influencing policy change.

Opportunities/Strategies

There are many opportunities and strategies that have been proposed and implemented across various communities that have helped to achieve CFS.

Community programs & capacity building

Community programs have proven to be an effective way to achieve CFS by overcoming barriers to food security. [12] Community programs can offer short and long term approaches to CFS and can have a range of influence and effectiveness. For example, smaller short-term approaches include ensuring community members are aware of existing food assistance programs, social services, and job training workshops in their community. However, it is important to note that evidence is limited that such programs effectively address barriers such as inadequate income.

To achieve more long-lasting solutions, changes in the food system of a community may be necessary. [12] Connecting social services with the food system will strengthen partnerships across sectors and help to build capacity amongst community members. For example, connecting dietitians with farmers to create programs such as community supported agriculture (CSA) and place-based institutional procurement strategies can help both the health of the community and welfare of the farmers. Also, a shift in the use of temporary solutions, such as food banks to community gardens, builds capacity amongst community members by teaching skills in growing their own food and increases their self-reliance. With such efforts, communities are able to determine their own food systems that are socially, economically, and culturally relevant to their food needs. For communities of color after a long history of exploitative laws and policies, food system restructuring returns the ability to own and manage land for food production. [29]

Community development may be necessary for success in CFS to connect people who may ordinarily remain isolated from each other and to commit to long-term solutions. Otherwise, short-term solutions such as food pantries and food distribution reinforce solutions for individual households alone. CFS requires the collaboration of a wide range of people, organizations, and institutions. [33]

Advocacy

Advocacy is another important strategy in achieving CFS. [27] [34] [35] Promoting locally grown, seasonal, and organic foods in the community can help to support the local economy and protect the environment. [12] Provision of opportunities and enabling conditions for more food to be produced and purchased locally can be done by promoting the benefits of local consumption to the public and by providing incentives and subsidies to farmers. Increasing food production in a community creates a more sustainable food system and lessens reliance on imports from other communities. [12] Advocacy is also important for social equity to ensure that everyone in the community has access to nutritious foods and the ability to participate in decision-making. [12] Conducting research in a community to determine the cost of a nutritious diet and the availability of healthy foods in low-income neighbourhoods can result in data that can be used to advocate for policy change. [35] Advocating for increases in minimum wage to a living wage and more affordable housing is thought to allow community members to have more money available to purchase food. For ethical concerns about where food comes from or if it was harvested in an environmentally sustainable way, one can advocate for stricter regulations on food labels. [12]

Policy

Policy development and change processes are critical to CFS. McCullum suggests several approaches including: advocating for public policies to support a multi-sectoral approach to CFS; assessing policies that are currently in place to see how they can enable or hinder CFS; collaboration among stakeholders across sectors such as education, labour, economic development, agriculture and health; and involving all stakeholders, including community members, in the decision-making process to alter or create more effective policies that ensure availability of healthy foods to all community members. [12] [36]

Cross-agency collaboration within the community can help to promote a more reliable food supply system, where effective social services are delivered to meet the complex needs of the community. [37] However, approaches to cross-agency collaboration need more case studies and social practices in the future so as to find out a best practice to solve the community food challenge. In addition, the government need to find out innovative and sustainable ways to help local residents have easier access to food. [38]

Participatory action research

Participatory action research (PAR) is an approach to research that involves participation of the individuals who are most involved, affected, and impacted by the issue being studied. [39] PAR allows issues recognized by those directly affected to be involved in the research designed to address these issues. PAR provides education and empowerment for both participants and researchers, as both are respected contributors to the research process. [27] [34] [35] PAR can help to empower citizens to achieve social change and influence policy; reduce stigma and stereotypes; and ensure successful, sustainable outcomes are achieved. At the community level PAR is an excellent strategy to help achieve CFS as it involves those directly affected in the issue. [39] The evidence-based data collected from PAR can be used in decision making to support the need for policy change, as strong evidence is needed in order to receive support from government. [5] [39] An example of a PAR that addresses CFS is the Activating Change Together for Community Food Security (ACT for CFS) project in Nova Scotia, Canada, which uses PAR to better understand and improve CFS in Nova Scotia (http://foodarc.ca/actforcfs Archived 2014-09-23 at the Wayback Machine ). The final reports from ACT for CFS can be accessed at http://foodarc.ca/project-pages/results-publications/ Archived 2016-05-12 at the Wayback Machine . PAR is conducive to knowledge mobilization, increased awareness, capacity-building, evidenced-based research, direct action, and collaboration of efforts from various stakeholders, individuals and organizations working to improve CFS and CFS-related policy.

Food sovereignty

Food sovereignty is a term popularized by La Via Campesina, an international peasant movement composed of ordinary citizens, small and medium scale farmers, rural women and indigenous communities. [40] In response to the globalization of agriculture this movement works to promote the importance of people and communities taking responsibility of our food systems. The term food sovereignty stresses that individuals have the right to a voice in food and agricultural policies as well as the right to produce their own food in their own territory. Food concerns such as genetically modified organisms (GMOs), environmental degradation, trade negotiations, and food safety have inspired interest in alternative solutions to improve current food systems. Seeds are one of peasants’ most precious resources and as a result La Via Campesina regularly exchanges seeds in the hopes of regaining control of seed supplies. La Via Campesina has inspired other social movements and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) to engage in the promotion of food sovereignty and it is now a recognized term used by large global organizations such as the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the United Nations Commission on Human Rights.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Food security</span> Measure of the availability and accessibility of food

Food security is the state of having reliable access to a sufficient quantity of affordable, nutritious food. The availability of food for people of any class and state, gender or religion is another element of food security. Similarly, household food security is considered to exist when all the members of a family, at all times, have access to enough food for an active, healthy life. Individuals who are food-secure do not live in hunger or fear of starvation. Food security includes resilience to future disruptions of food supply. Such a disruption could occur due to various risk factors such as droughts and floods, shipping disruptions, fuel shortages, economic instability, and wars. Food insecurity is the opposite of food security: a state where there is only limited or uncertain availability of suitable food.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Malnutrition</span> Medical condition caused by receiving too little or too many nutrients

Malnutrition occurs when an organism gets too few or too many nutrients, resulting in health problems. Specifically, it is a deficiency, excess, or imbalance of energy, protein and other nutrients which adversely affects the body's tissues and form.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Urban agriculture</span> Farming in cities and urban areas

Urban agriculture refers to various practices of cultivating, processing, and distributing food in urban areas. The term also applies to the area activities of animal husbandry, aquaculture, beekeeping, and horticulture in an urban context. Urban agriculture is distinguished from peri-urban agriculture, which takes place in rural areas at the edge of suburbs.

The basic needs approach is one of the major approaches to the measurement of absolute poverty in developing countries globally. It works to define the absolute minimum resources necessary for long-term physical well-being, usually in terms of consumption goods. The poverty line is then defined as the amount of income required to satisfy the needs of the people. The "basic needs" approach was introduced by the International Labour Organization's World Employment Conference in 1976. "Perhaps the high point of the WEP was the World Employment Conference of 1976, which proposed the satisfaction of basic human needs as the overriding objective of national and international development policy. The basic needs approach to development was endorsed by governments and workers' and employers' organizations from all over the world. It influenced the programmes and policies of major multilateral and bilateral development agencies, and was the precursor to the human development approach."

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Food desert</span> Area that has limited access to affordable and nutritious food

A food desert is an area that has limited access to food that is plentiful, affordable, or nutritious. In contrast, an area with greater access to supermarkets and vegetable shops with fresh foods may be called a food oasis. The designation considers the type and the quality of food available to the population, in addition to the accessibility of the food through the size and the proximity of the food stores.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sustainable food system</span> Balanced growth of nutritional substances and their distribution

A sustainable food system is a type of food system that provides healthy food to people and creates sustainable environmental, economic, and social systems that surround food. Sustainable food systems start with the development of sustainable agricultural practices, development of more sustainable food distribution systems, creation of sustainable diets, and reduction of food waste throughout the system. Sustainable food systems have been argued to be central to many or all 17 Sustainable Development Goals.

The term food system describes the interconnected systems and processes that influence nutrition, food, health, community development, and agriculture. A food system includes all processes and infrastructure involved in feeding a population: growing, harvesting, processing, packaging, transporting, marketing, consumption, distribution, and disposal of food and food-related items. It also includes the inputs needed and outputs generated at each of these steps.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Global Hunger Index</span> Tool that measures and tracks hunger

The Global Hunger Index (GHI) is a tool that attempts to measure and track hunger globally as well as by region and by country, prepared by European NGOs of Concern Worldwide and Welthungerhilfe. The GHI is calculated annually, and its results appear in a report issued in October each year.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Water security</span> A goal of water management to harness water-related opportunities and manage risks

The aim of water security is to make the most of water's benefits for humans and ecosystems. The second aim is to limit the risks of destructive impacts of water to an acceptable level. These risks include for example too much water (flood), too little water or poor quality (polluted) water. People who live with a high level of water security always have access to "an acceptable quantity and quality of water for health, livelihoods and production". For example, access to water, sanitation and hygiene services is one part of water security. Some organizations use the term water security more narrowly for water supply aspects only.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rural poverty</span> Poverty in rural areas, which are often less developed than urban areas worldwide

Rural poverty refers to situations where people living in non-urban regions are in a state or condition of lacking the financial resources and essentials for living. It takes account of factors of rural society, rural economy, and political systems that give rise to the marginalization and economic disadvantage found there. Rural areas, because of their small, spread-out populations, typically have less well maintained infrastructure and a harder time accessing markets, which tend to be concentrated in population centers.

The Food Distribution Program on Indian Reservations (FDPIR) allows Indian Tribal Organizations (ITOs) to operate a food distribution program as an alternative to the Food Stamp Program for those living on or near an Indian reservation. The Food and Nutrition Service (FNS), an agency of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, administers FDPIR at the Federal level, and is locally operated through ITOs or State agencies(SAs). Eligibility for benefits is similar to the food stamp (SNAP) program, and funds are drawn from food stamp appropriations. Food Distribution Program Nutrition Education (FDPIR) grants are also awarded to participating FDPIR ITOs. These grants are awarded to support nutrition education activities that are culturally relevant, promoting healthy food choices, and promoting physical activity among participants.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gender and food security</span>

Gender inequality both leads to and is a result of food insecurity. According to estimates, women and girls make up 60% of the world's chronically hungry and little progress has been made in ensuring the equal right to food for women enshrined in the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women. Women face discrimination both in education and employment opportunities and within the household, where their bargaining power is lower. On the other hand, gender equality is described as instrumental to ending malnutrition and hunger. Women tend to be responsible for food preparation and childcare within the family and are more likely to be spent their income on food and their children's needs. The gendered aspects of food security are visible along the four pillars of food security: availability, access, utilization and stability, as defined by the Food and Agriculture Organization.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hunger in the United States</span> Food insecurity

Hunger in the United States of America affects millions of Americans, including some who are middle class, or who are in households where all adults are in work. The United States produces far more food than it needs for domestic consumption—hunger within the U.S. is caused by some Americans having insufficient money to buy food for themselves or their families. Additional causes of hunger and food insecurity include neighborhood deprivation and agricultural policy. Hunger is addressed by a mix of public and private food aid provision. Public interventions include changes to agricultural policy, the construction of supermarkets in underserved neighborhoods, investment in transportation infrastructure, and the development of community gardens. Private aid is provided by food pantries, soup kitchens, food banks, and food rescue organizations.

The Food Justice Movement is a grassroots initiative which emerged in response to food insecurity and economic pressures that prevent access to healthy, nutritious, and culturally appropriate foods. The food justice movement moves beyond increasing food availability and works to address the root cause of unequal access to adequate nutrition. Like other Environmental Justice initiatives, the Food Justice Movement advocates for rights-based solutions that identify the underlying human rights that allow individuals to achieve adequate food security and nutrition. This differs from policy-based solutions that focus on food availability and affordability by increasing food production or lowering the cost of food.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Food deserts by country</span>

This is a list of food desert issues and solutions by country.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Food security in Mexico</span> Overview of food security in Mexico

Mexico has sought to ensure food security through its history. Yet, despite various efforts, Mexico continues to lack national food and nutrition strategies that secure food security for the people. As a large country of more than 100 million people, planning and executing social policies are complex tasks. Although Mexico has been expanding its food and nutrition programs that have been expected, and to some degree, have contributed to increases in health and nutrition, food security, particularly as it relates to obesity and malnutrition, still remains a relevant public health problem. Although food availability is not the issue, severe deficiencies in the accessibility of food contribute to insecurity.

Hunger in Bangladesh is one of the major issues that affects the citizens of Bangladesh. The nation state of Bangladesh is one of the most densely populated countries in the world and home for more than 160 million people. It progresses immensely in the Human Development Index, particularly in the areas of literacy and life expectancy, but economic inequality has increased and about 32% of the population, that is 50 million people, still live in extreme poverty.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sustainable Development Goal 2</span> Global goal to end hunger by 2030

Sustainable Development Goal 2 aims to achieve "zero hunger". It is one of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals established by the United Nations in 2015. The official wording is: "End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture". SDG 2 highlights the "complex inter-linkages between food security, nutrition, rural transformation and sustainable agriculture". According to the United Nations, there were up to 757 million people facing hunger in 2023 – one out of 11 people in the world, which accounts for slightly less than 10 percent of the world population. One in every nine people goes to bed hungry each night, including 20 million people currently at risk of famine in South Sudan, Somalia, Yemen and Nigeria.

Food insecurity is an issue affecting many American college students. While hunger in the United States affects all age groups, food insecurity seems to be especially prevalent among students. Studies have found that students of color are disproportionately affected. Students can be especially vulnerable to hunger during their first year, as it may be the first time they've lived away from home. The rising cost of education is another driver of food insecurity among students. Experiencing a period of chronic hunger can impact a student's mental health, and can lead to lower academic performance. Measures taken to alleviate hunger among students includes the establishment of food pantries in several US universities.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Food deserts in the United States</span>

Food deserts are generally defined as regions that lack access to supermarkets and affordable, healthy foods, particularly in low-income communities. According to the USDA's most recent report on food access, as of 2017, approximately 39.5 million people - 12.9% of the US population - lived in low-income and low food access.

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  20. ↑ Story, M; Kaphingst, KM; Robinson-O'Brien, R; Glanz, K (2008). "Creating healthy food and eating environments: policy and environmental approaches". Annual Review of Public Health. 29 (1): 253–72. doi: 10.1146/annurev.publhealth.29.020907.090926 . PMID   18031223.
  21. ↑ Nova Scotia Nutrition Council, Atlantic Health Promotion Research Centre, Nova Scotia Community Action Program for Children and Canada Prenatal Nutrition Program Family Resource Centres (2006). "Thought About Food? Understanding the Relationship Between Food Security and Well-Being in Nova Scotia" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2010-04-15. Retrieved 2013-06-03.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  22. 1 2 Winne, Mark (2004). "Community Food Security: Promoting Food Security and Building Healthy Food Systems".
  23. ↑ Hamm, MW; Bellows, AC (2003). "Community Food Security and Nutrition Educators". Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior. 35 (1): 37–43. doi:10.1016/s1499-4046(06)60325-4. PMID   12588679.
  24. ↑ Hossfeld, Leslie; Brooke, Kelly; Waity, Julia (2016). "Solutions to the Social Problem of Food Insecurity in the United States". Agenda for Social Justice: Solutions for 2016: 44. doi:10.2307/j.ctt1t8968r.10. JSTOR   j.ctt1t8968r.10.
  25. ↑ Barraclough, Solon (1991). An End to Hunger?: The Social Origins of Food Strategies. London: Zed.
  26. ↑ Senge, D.; Scharmer, O.C.; Jaworski, J.; Flowers, B. (2004). Presence: Human purpose and the field of the future . New York: Random House. ISBN   978-0385516303.
  27. 1 2 3 Williams, P.L.; Anderson, B.; Hunter, H.; Watt, C. (2013). Synthesis Report: The Nova Scotia Participatory Food Costing Projects (2001-2011): Evaluative Learning from Ten Years of Participatory Research. Crown Currency.
  28. ↑ Caplan, Pat (2016). "Big society or broken society? Food Banks in the UK". Anthropology Today. 32 (1): 5–9. doi: 10.1111/1467-8322.12223 .
  29. 1 2 Alkon, Allison (2011). Cultivating food justice : race, class, and sustainability. Internet Archive. Cambridge, Mass. : MIT Press. ISBN   978-0-262-01626-1.
  30. ↑ Wright, Eric Olin (2010). Envisioning Real Utopias. Verso. ISBN   978-1844676170.
  31. ↑ Williams, P. L.; Reimer, D. E.; Warner, A.; Carlsson, L.; Ramen, S.; De Vreede, C.; Daughton, D.; Hunter, H. (2012). Chapter 4: The role of social economy organizations in building community food security in Social Economy: Communities, Economies and Solidarity in Atlantic Canada by Leslie Brown and Sonja Novkovic. Sydney, Cape Breton: Cape Breton University Press.
  32. ↑ Knezevic, I; Lowitt, K.; Williams, P.; Johnson, C. "Re-framing Community Food Security: Lessons from Community-based Research". Forthcoming.
  33. ↑ Koç, Mustafa (1999). For Hunger-proof Cities: Sustainable Urban Food Systems. IDRC Books.
  34. 1 2 Williams, Patricia L.; MacAulay, Rita B.; Anderson, Barbara J.; Barro, Kimberlee; Gillis, Doris E.; Johnson, Christine P.; Langille, Lynn L.; Moran, Shelley; Reimer, Debra E. (1 April 2012). ""I Would Have Never Thought That I Would Be in Such a Predicament": Voices From Women Experiencing Food Insecurity in Nova Scotia, Canada". Journal of Hunger & Environmental Nutrition. 7 (2–3): 253–270. doi:10.1080/19320248.2012.704740. S2CID   143674367.
  35. 1 2 3 Williams, Patricia; Amero, Michelle; Anderson, Barbara; Gillis, Doris; Green-Lapierre, Rebecca; Johnson, Christine; Reimer, Debra (2012). "A Participatory Food Costing Model in Nova Scotia". Canadian Journal of Dietetic Practice and Research. 73 (4): 181–188. doi:10.3148/73.4.2012.181. PMID   23217445.
  36. ↑ McCullum, C; Pelletier, D.; Barr, D.; Wilkins, J. (2002). "Use of participatory planning process as a way to build community food security". Journal of the American Dietetic Association. 102 (7): 962–967. doi:10.1016/s0002-8223(02)90220-8. PMID   12146560.
  37. ↑ Lips, A. Miriam B.; O'Neill, Rose R.; Eppel, Elizabeth A. (2011-03-08). "Cross-Agency Collaboration in New Zealand: An Empirical Study of Information Sharing Practices, Enablers and Barriers in Managing for Shared Social Outcomes". International Journal of Public Administration. 34 (4): 255–266. doi:10.1080/01900692.2010.533571. ISSN   0190-0692. S2CID   153611784.
  38. ↑ Diehl, Jessica Ann; Sweeney, Erin; Wong, Bennett; Sia, Ching Sian; Yao, Haomu; Prabhudesai, Manasi (2020-09-01). "Feeding cities: Singapore's approach to land use planning for urban agriculture". Global Food Security. 26: 100377. Bibcode:2020GlFS...2600377D. doi:10.1016/j.gfs.2020.100377. ISSN   2211-9124. S2CID   218964241.
  39. 1 2 3 Minkler, M (2000). "Using participatory action research to build healthy communities". Public Health Reports. 115 (2): 191–197. doi:10.1093/phr/115.2.191 (inactive 2024-09-17). PMC   1308710 . PMID   10968753.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of September 2024 (link)
  40. ↑ Desmarais, Annette Aurélie (2008). "The power of peasants: Reflections on the meanings of La Vía Campesina" (PDF). Journal of Rural Studies. 24 (2): 138–149. Bibcode:2008JRurS..24..138D. doi:10.1016/j.jrurstud.2007.12.002.[ permanent dead link ]
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