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Jalmenus evagoras, the imperial hairstreak, imperial blue, or common imperial blue, is a small, metallic blue butterfly of the family Lycaenidae. It is commonly found in eastern coastal regions of Australia. This species is notable for its unique mutualism with ants of the genus Iridomyrmex. The ants provide protection for juveniles and cues for adult mating behavior. They are compensated with food secreted from J. evagoras larvae. The ants greatly enhance the survival and reproductive success of the butterflies. J. evagoras lives and feeds on Acacia plants, so butterfly populations are localized to areas with preferred species of both host plants and ants.
Male-male intrasexual competition occurs when two males of the same species compete for the opportunity to mate with a female. Sexually dimorphic traits, size, sex ratio, and the social situation may all play a role in the effects male-male competition has on the reproductive success of a male and the mate choice of a female. Larger males tend to win male-male conflicts due to their sheer strength and ability to ward off other males from taking over their females. For instance, in the fly Dryomyza anilis, size shows the strongest correlation to the outcome of male-male conflicts over resources like territory and females.
In ecology, scramble competition refers to a situation in which a resource is accessible to all competitors. However, since the particular resource is usually finite, scramble competition may lead to decreased survival rates for all competitors if the resource is used to its carrying capacity. Scramble competition is also defined as "[a] finite resource [that] is shared equally amongst the competitors so that the quantity of food per individual declines with increasing population density". A further description of scramble competition is "competition for a resource that is inadequate for the needs of all, but which is partitioned equally among contestants, so that no competitor obtains the amount it needs and all would die in extreme cases."
References
- ↑ Brännström Å, Sumpter DJ (October 2005). "The role of competition and clustering in population dynamics" (PDF). Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 272 (1576): 2065–72. doi:10.1098/rspb.2005.3185. PMC 1559893 . PMID 16191618.
- ↑ Vogel ER (August 2005). "Rank differences in energy intake rates in white-faced capuchin monkeys, Cebus capucinus: the effects of contest competition". Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology. 58 (4): 333–344. doi:10.1007/s00265-005-0960-4. ISSN 0340-5443. S2CID 29039152.
- ↑ Dammhahn M, Kappeler PM (February 2010). "Scramble or contest competition over food in solitarily foraging mouse lemurs (Microcebus spp.): New insights from stable isotopes". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 141 (2): 181–9. doi:10.1002/ajpa.21129. PMID 19591211.
- ↑ Wai KM, Fujii K (June 1990). "Intraspecific larval competition among wasps parasitic of bean weevil larvae". Researches on Population Ecology. 32 (1): 85–98. doi:10.1007/BF02512591. ISSN 0034-5466. S2CID 41202920.
- ↑ Tuda M, Iwasa Y (October 1998). "Evolution of contest competition and its effect on host–parasitoid dynamics". Evolutionary Ecology. 12 (7): 855–870. doi:10.1023/A:1006550817371. ISSN 0269-7653. S2CID 20737569.
- 1 2 Grueter CC, Robbins AM, Abavandimwe D, Vecellio V, Ndagijimana F, Ortmann S, et al. (2016). "Causes, mechanisms, and consequences of contest competition among female mountain gorillas in Rwanda". Behavioral Ecology. 27 (3): 766–776. doi: 10.1093/beheco/arv212 . ISSN 1045-2249.
- ↑ Kemp DJ, Alcock J (September 2003). "Lifetime resource utilization, flight physiology, and the evolution of contest competition in territorial insects". The American Naturalist. 162 (3): 290–301. doi:10.1086/376890. PMID 12970838. S2CID 25146159.
- ↑ Kemp DJ, Wiklund C (2001-05-07). "Fighting without weaponry: a review of male-male contest competition in butterflies". Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology. 49 (6): 429–442. doi:10.1007/s002650100318. ISSN 0340-5443. S2CID 25209886.
- ↑ Bergman M, Olofsson M, Wiklund C (October 2010). "Contest outcome in a territorial butterfly: the role of motivation". Proceedings. Biological Sciences. 277 (1696): 3027–33. doi:10.1098/rspb.2010.0646. PMC 2982028 . PMID 20462910.