Coral Reef Conservation Program

Last updated
NOAA Coral Reef Conservation Program
AbbreviationCRCP
Formation2000
TypeIntergovernmental Organisation
HeadquartersSilver Spring, Maryland
Key people
Jennifer Koss (Director)
Parent organization
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
Website https://coralreef.noaa.gov

Coral Reef Conservation Program (CRCP) is a partnership between National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) agencies, established in 2000. The program is a multidisciplinary approach, initiated by the NOAA, to managing and understanding coral reef ecosystems through research and the publication of data to support relevant partners involved in coral reef restoration.

Contents

Background

The CRCP was established by the Coral Reef Conservation Act 2000 and Presidential Executive Order 13089, in order to fulfil the NOAA's obligations under these statutes.

The main role of the CRCP is to gather and present scientific information that coastal and marine resource managers and other decision-makers require, to address the various threats facing coral reef ecosystems in U.S. and surrounding waters. The CRCP's priority threats are climate change, unsustainable fishing practices and pollution. Monitoring the effects of these threats on the condition of U.S. coral reef ecosystems is the primary responsibility of the CRCP. Each year NOAA divers survey coral reefs at nearly 1600 sites to monitor these effects. [1] All research and data collected by the CRCP is publicly available on the Coral Reef Information System. Other than ecosystem monitoring, other tasks conducted by the CRCP include mapping of coral reef habitats, forecasting oceanographic conditions, and communications and data management.

As well as conducting research, the CRCP also financially supports a number of partners including institutions of higher education and not-for-profit organisations, by awarding grants to projects involved in coral reef ecosystem management and restoration. The program aims to fund at least $8 million in grants each year to partners involved in coral reef conservation management projects. In the 2018 Fiscal Year, the program contributed more than $26 million in funding towards coral reef projects across the U.S, through grants and agreements. [2] Funding for the CRCP is provided by the NOAA and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.

Agencies Involved

The CRCP is made up of several NOAA Line Offices including the National Ocean Service, the National Marine Fisheries Service, the Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research, and the National Environmental Satellite, Data and Information Service. [3]

The CRCP also works closely with a number of external partners including state and territorial governments, academic institutions and non-government and intergovernmental organisations.

Objectives

The mission of the Coral Reef Conservation Program is outlined in the Coral Reef Conservation Act and can be summarised as to "protect, conserve and restore coral reef resources by maintaining healthy ecosystem functioning". [4] The objectives of the program are consolidated into the following four key pillars, as outlined in the NOAA governmental webpage. [5]

Increasing Resilience to Climate Change

NOAA CRCP scuba diver surveying bleached corals NOAA scuba diver surveying bleached corals.jpg
NOAA CRCP scuba diver surveying bleached corals

The CRCP has adopted a resilience-based approach to addressing the issue of climate change which poses a significant threat to coral reef ecosystems by instigating coral bleaching. A resilience-based approach involves increasing the capacity of coral reef ecosystems to recover from changes in parameters and continue normal functioning. Resilience based management utilises pro-active responses rather than reactive responses that traditional management strategies tend to adopt. [6] The CRCP's main responsibility under this approach is to continue to conduct and provide partners with the relevant information and data necessary to successfully initiate resilience-based management practices. In 2014, CRCP scientists, along with partners including the NOAA Coral Reef Watch, developed precise climate and bleaching thermal stress prediction tools. [7] By anticipating stress events such as global bleaching outbreaks, managers can make proactive decisions to minimise the overall effects on coral reef ecosystems. One of the CRCP's targets is for at least seven of the organisation's partners to apply such climate resilience related data to climate-change orientated projects, by 2025. [8] The CRCP also has the responsibility of initiating ongoing communication with government bodies and federal management partners on the importance of resilience-based management for the future viability of coral reefs. To fulfil this responsibility, the CRCP has developed communication plans and response plans to present information and data in a systematic and coherent manner for federal decision and policy makers. Crisis response plans are made up of early warning frameworks to prepare and protect ecosystems in response to global threat events such as coral bleaching, disease and invasive species outbreaks, and natural weather disasters such as tropical storms.

Reducing Land-based Sources of Pollution

Sediment-covered coral in Florida. Photo taken by the NOAA. Sediment covered coral.jpg
Sediment-covered coral in Florida. Photo taken by the NOAA.

Land-based sources of pollution pose a significant threat on coral reef ecosystems by interrupting natural processes and functioning. Reducing this threat is another pillar under the objectives of the CRCP. The CRCP regulates and supports a number of watershed management initiatives including research to identify sources of pollution, conducting studies to understand the impacts of land-based sources of pollution on coral reefs and providing financial and technical assistance to partners' watershed management responses. A key partnership under this pillar is the 'Watershed Partnership Initiative' [9] with the U.S Coral Reef Task Force, which focuses on reducing land-based pollutants by implementing specific and integrated action responses. Watershed management includes the implementation of vegetated buffer protection along coasts, land conservation and the responsible treatment of wastewater.

Improving Fisheries' Sustainability

The success of the CRCP's ability to improve the sustainability of U.S. fisheries relies heavily on partnerships with relevant fishery management councils and agencies. There are two key strategies under this pillar, both of which involve cooperating with external partners. One of the strategies is to provide key data for coral reef fisheries management. Data collected by the CRCP is used by a number of fisheries managers working under the Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act [10] in order to ensure that the ecological role and function that marine species play in coral reef ecosystems is sustained. The second strategy is to assist partner agencies in effectively managing coral reef fisheries. The CRCP aims for 50 percent of relevant partners to adopt effective management tools of which have been developed cooperatively. [11] One way that the CRCP assists federal partners interested in the sustainable management of fisheries, is by supporting effective implementation and management of marine protected areas. Marine protected areas are valuable tools for restoring overexploited ecosystems and protecting fisheries.

NOAA coral nurseries help to restore coral populations NOAA coral nurseries help support coral restoration.jpg
NOAA coral nurseries help to restore coral populations

Restoring Viable Coral Populations

The final pillar to the CRCP's strategy plan is the restoration of coral reef ecosystems. This involves supporting research of herbivore replenishment processes and collecting further data to support the prevention of avoidable losses of coral, increasing resilience and improving long-term coral health. In order to successfully enhance resilience the CRCP has recognised the need to conduct restoration projects on an international level by continuing to build foreign partnership. Restoration projects include resilience interventions such as assisted genetic adaptation, the manipulation of symbiotic relationships and larval propagation.

Projects and Initiatives

Status reports

One of the CRCP's most significant contributions to the management of U.S. coral reef ecosystems is the development of a periodic, national-level assessment on the condition of U.S. coral reef areas. The CRCP partnered with the Integration and Application Network (IAN) at the University of Maryland Centre for Environmental Science (UMES) in forming 'status reports' to present the data collected from the periodic assessments. The status reports fulfil one of the CRCP's responsibilities, as mandated by the Coral Reef Conservation Act 2000, to build an 'integrated observing system' to monitor the condition of coral reefs over time. [12]

Both biological and physical data is collected by UMES-IAN and NOAA scientists in coral reef areas including: American Samoa, the Commonwealth of the Northern Marianna Islands, Guam, Hawaiian Archipelago, and the Pacific Remote Islands. [13] The status reports include the assessment of several indicators which are synthesised into overall condition scores. The indicators are based on four main categories: coral and algae, fish, climate and human connections.

The purpose of the reports is to establish both a baseline and a record to track changes overtime and evaluate the overall conditions of the U.S. coral reef ecosystems. [14] The reports are also part of CRCP's larger initiative to communicate complex information in a clear and concise manner in order to inform communities and decision-makers.

Coral Reef Information System (CoRIS)

The CRCP operates an information database known as 'CoRIS', that provides public access to all coral reef data and information collected and managed by the NOAA. This information portal is a key function of the CRCP, making data accessible to all coral reef management decision-makers. CoRIS is made up of a number of databases including the 'NOAA Deep Sea Coral Data Portal', which provides access to data relating to deep sea coral and sponges.

Outreach and education activities

One of the CRCP's responsibilities as outlined in the Coral Reef Conservation Act is to build public awareness and knowledge on the importance of sustainable management of coral reefs. [15] The CRCP has conducted a number of educational and training workshops, and has also distributed a range of educational material regarding coral reef management, to the public. In 2017, the CRCP developed an educational video named "A Guide to Assessing Coral Reef Resilience for Decision Support". [16] The video was awarded first place at the 2018 CINEFISH film festival, held in Mexico. [17]

Funding and grants

The CRCP funds a wide variety of coral reef management projects ranging from school science excursions, projects concerning the identification and mapping of coral ecosystems, the publication of educational materials and restoration initiatives.

Funding for hurricanes Irma and Maria

CRCP scientists are concerned with the rapid growth of macroalgal on coral, which is distinguishable by its pink, fleshy appearance. Macroalgal overgrowth on coral reefs.jpg
CRCP scientists are concerned with the rapid growth of macroalgal on coral, which is distinguishable by its pink, fleshy appearance.

In 2017 Hurricanes Irma and Maria caused severe damage to the coral reefs in Florida and Puerto Rico, impacting ecosystem vulnerability and resilience. [18] Funding to assist coral restoration was provided by the NOAA's CRCP and partners including the National Fish and Wildlife Foundation and National Marine Fisheries Service. The program led efforts to assess the impact of the hurricanes on local coral reef ecosystems and restore damage. The funds were used towards research and assessment to collect data on the impact of the hurricanes on the reefs and other crucial information, vital for effective decision-making. It was found that overturned coral reefs in Puerto Rico appeared to have macroalgal overgrowth, as evident in the figure, as a result of stress from the 2017 hurricanes. Scientists are concerned with the rapid growth of this macroalgae, and such findings are vital for effective management decision-making for the coral reef ecosystem [19]

Funding the Hawaii Coastal Uses Mapping Project

The CRCP funds a number of projects and programs that are interested in the sustainable management of U.S. coral reef ecosystems, including the Hawaii Coastal Uses Mapping Project. The project involved gathering data and information on the impact of human activity near coastal environments on coral reef ecosystems surrounding Hawaii, by using a participatory geographic information systems (PGIS) methodology. [20] PGIS is an effective means to obtain critical sociospatial information which includes data regarding the location of resources and the location of ecosystem related concerns, and is very useful information for a number of stakeholders involved in coastal ecosystem management including state and federal managers. Prior to the implementation of the program there was very little sociospatial data collected on the Hawaii coast.

Funding Research

The CRCP provides financial support to a number of institutional organisations with the purpose of funding and supporting the development of research papers interested in the restoration and protection of coral reef ecosystems. In 2015 the NOAA CRCP funded a study run by the Florida International University, which found that 'grazing fish can help save imperilled coral reefs'. [21] The CRCP has also funded a number of studies on the impacts of climate change on coral reefs and the effectiveness of new management strategies. The article 'Climate-smart Design for Ecosystem Management' [22] from the Environmental Management Journal, was partly funded by the CRCP and examines and assesses adaptation strategies for coral reefs.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Coral bleaching</span> Phenomenon where coral expel algae tissue

Coral bleaching is the process when corals become white due to loss of symbiotic algae and photosynthetic pigments. This loss of pigment can be caused by various stressors, such as changes in temperature, light, or nutrients. Bleaching occurs when coral polyps expel the zooxanthellae that live inside their tissue, causing the coral to turn white. The zooxanthellae are photosynthetic, and as the water temperature rises, they begin to produce reactive oxygen species. This is toxic to the coral, so the coral expels the zooxanthellae. Since the zooxanthellae produce the majority of coral colouration, the coral tissue becomes transparent, revealing the coral skeleton made of calcium carbonate. Most bleached corals appear bright white, but some are blue, yellow, or pink due to pigment proteins in the coral.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Channel Islands National Marine Sanctuary</span> Marine sanctuary in the Pacific Coast of Southern California

The Channel Islands National Marine Sanctuary is a sanctuary off the coast of Santa Barbara and Ventura counties in Southern California 350 miles south of San Francisco and 95 miles north of Los Angeles. It was designated in 1980 by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">National Estuarine Research Reserve</span> Network of 30 protected areas in the US

The National Estuarine Research Reserve System is a network of 30 protected areas established by partnerships between the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and coastal states. The reserves represent different biogeographic regions of the United States. The National Estuarine Research Reserve System protects more than 1.3 million acres of coastal and estuarine habitats for long-term research, water-quality monitoring, education, and coastal stewardship.

The National Ocean Service (NOS) is an office within the U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). It is the responsible for preserving and enhancing the nation's coastal resources and ecosystems along approximately 95,000 miles (153,000 km) of shoreline, that is bordering 3,500,000 square miles (9,100,000 km2) of coastal, Great Lakes, and ocean waters. Its mission is to "provide science-based solutions through collaborative partnerships to address the evolving economic, environmental, and social pressures on our oceans and coasts." The offices works with partnered agencies to ensure that the ocean and coastal areas are safe, healthy, and productive. Its projects focus on working to ensure the safe and efficient marine transportation, promoting the protection of coastal communities, conserving marine and coastal places. NOemploys 1,700 scientists, natural resource managers, and specialists in many different fields. The National Ocean Service was previously also known as the National Ocean Survey until it was renamed in 1983.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Marine protected area</span> Protected areas of seas, oceans, estuaries or large lakes

Marine protected areas (MPAs) are protected areas of the world's seas, oceans, estuaries or in the US, the Great Lakes. These marine areas can come in many forms ranging from wildlife refuges to research facilities. MPAs restrict human activity for a conservation purpose, typically to protect natural or cultural resources. Such marine resources are protected by local, state, territorial, native, regional, national, or international authorities and differ substantially among and between nations. This variation includes different limitations on development, fishing practices, fishing seasons and catch limits, moorings and bans on removing or disrupting marine life. In some situations, MPAs also provide revenue for countries, potentially equal to the income that they would have if they were to grant companies permissions to fish. The value of MPA to mobile species is unknown.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory</span> U.S. Government research laboratory

The Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory (AOML), a federal research laboratory, is part of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's (NOAA) Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research (OAR), located in Miami in the United States. AOML's research spans tropical cyclone and hurricanes, coastal ecosystems, oceans and human health, climate studies, global carbon systems, and ocean observations. It is one of seven NOAA Research Laboratories (RLs).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Marine ecosystem</span> Ecosystem in saltwater environment

Marine ecosystems are the largest of Earth's aquatic ecosystems and exist in waters that have a high salt content. These systems contrast with freshwater ecosystems, which have a lower salt content. Marine waters cover more than 70% of the surface of the Earth and account for more than 97% of Earth's water supply and 90% of habitable space on Earth. Seawater has an average salinity of 35 parts per thousand of water. Actual salinity varies among different marine ecosystems. Marine ecosystems can be divided into many zones depending upon water depth and shoreline features. The oceanic zone is the vast open part of the ocean where animals such as whales, sharks, and tuna live. The benthic zone consists of substrates below water where many invertebrates live. The intertidal zone is the area between high and low tides. Other near-shore (neritic) zones can include mudflats, seagrass meadows, mangroves, rocky intertidal systems, salt marshes, coral reefs, lagoons. In the deep water, hydrothermal vents may occur where chemosynthetic sulfur bacteria form the base of the food web.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">National Marine Sanctuary of American Samoa</span>

The National Marine Sanctuary of American Samoa is a federally-designated underwater area protected by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's (NOAA) Office of National Marine Sanctuaries. This sanctuary is the largest and most remote in the National Marine Sanctuary system. Spanning 13,581 sq mi, it is thought to be home to the greatest biodiversity of aquatic species of all themarine sanctuaries. Among them are expansive coral reefs, including some of the oldest Porites coral heads on earth, deep-water reefs, hydrothermal vent communities, and rare archeological resources. It was established in 1986, and then expanded and renamed in 2012.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service</span>

The National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service (NESDIS) was created by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) to operate and manage the United States environmental satellite programs, and manage the data gathered by the National Weather Service and other government agencies and departments.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Florida Department of Environmental Protection</span> Florida government agency

The Florida Department of Environmental Protection (FDEP) is the Florida government agency responsible for environmental protection.

The Joint Ocean Commission Initiative is a bipartisan, collaborative group in the United States that aims to "accelerate the pace of change that results in meaningful ocean policy reform." The Joint Initiative was established by the members of two major U.S.-based oceans commissions: the Pew Oceans Commission and the United States Commission on Ocean Policy. It was originally co-chaired by former White House Chief of Staff Leon Panetta and former Chief of Naval Operations Admiral James D. Watkins, chairs of the Pew and U.S. Ocean Commissions, respectively. Currently, the Joint Initiative is led by a Leadership Council, which is co-chaired by Christine Todd Whitman, former EPA Administrator under President George W. Bush and former governor of New Jersey, and Norman Y. Mineta, Secretary of Commerce under President Bill Clinton and Secretary of Transportation under President George W. Bush.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Earthwatch Institute</span> Scientific field research institute

Earthwatch Institute is an international environmental charity. It was founded in 1971 as Educational Expeditions International by Bob Citron and Clarence Truesdale. Earthwatch Institute supports Ph.D. researchers internationally and conducts over 100,000 hours of research annually using the Citizen Science methodology. Earthwatch's mission statement states that the organization "connects people with scientists worldwide to conduct environmental research and empowers them with the knowledge they need to conserve the planet." As such, it is one of the global underwriters of scientific field research in climate change, archaeology, paleontology, marine life, biodiversity, ecosystems and wildlife. For over fifty years, Earthwatch has raised funds to recruit individuals, students, teachers, and corporate fellows to participate in field research to understand nature's response to accelerating global change.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Coral Triangle</span> Ecoregion of Asia

The Coral Triangle (CT) is a roughly triangular area in the tropical waters around the Philippines, Indonesia, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands and Timor-Leste. This area contains at least 500 species of reef-building corals in each ecoregion. The Coral Triangle is located between the Pacific and Indian oceans and encompasses portions of two biogeographic regions: the Indonesian-Philippines Region, and the Far Southwestern Pacific Region. As one of eight major coral reef zones in the world, the Coral Triangle is recognized as a global centre of marine biodiversity and a global priority for conservation. Its biological resources make it a global hotspot of marine biodiversity. Known as the "Amazon of the seas", it covers 5.7 million square kilometres (2,200,000 sq mi) of ocean waters. It contains more than 76% of the world's shallow-water reef-building coral species, 37% of its reef fish species, 50% of its razor clam species, six out of seven of the world's sea turtle species, and the world's largest mangrove forest. In 2014, the Asian Development Bank (ADB) reported that the gross domestic product of the marine ecosystem in the Coral Triangle is roughly $1.2 trillion per year and provides food to over 120 million people. According to the Coral Triangle Knowledge Network, the region annually brings in about $3 billion in foreign exchange income from fisheries exports, and another $3 billion from coastal tourism revenues.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Coral reef protection</span> Modifying human activities to reduce impact on coral reefs.

Coral reef protection is the process of modifying human activities to avoid damage to healthy coral reefs and to help damaged reefs recover. The key strategies used in reef protection include defining measurable goals and introducing active management and community involvement to reduce stressors that damage reef health. One management technique is to create Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) that directly limit human activities such as fishing.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Linwood Pendleton</span> American economist

Linwood Pendleton, a Franco-American environmental economist, is the Executive Director of the Ocean Knowledge Action Network and formerly the Senior Vice-President for Science at the Centre for the 4th Industrial Revolution. Previously, he was the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) Global Oceans Lead Scientist. Since October 2014, Pendleton has served as International Chair in Marine Ecosystem Services at the Laboratory of Excellence and European Institute for Marine Studies. He is also a senior fellow at Duke's Nicholas Institute for Environmental Policy Solutions (NIEPS) and Adjunct Associate Professor at the Duke University Marine Laboratory, part of NIEPS. He previously served as the Director of Ocean and Coastal Policy for the Nicholas Institute (2009-2013) and was the founder of the Marine Ecosystem Services Partnership. Pendleton was the Acting Chief Economist for the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) from 2011-2013.

The resilience of coral reefs is the biological ability of coral reefs to recover from natural and anthropogenic disturbances such as storms and bleaching episodes. Resilience refers to the ability of biological or social systems to overcome pressures and stresses by maintaining key functions through resisting or adapting to change. Reef resistance measures how well coral reefs tolerate changes in ocean chemistry, sea level, and sea surface temperature. Reef resistance and resilience are important factors in coral reef recovery from the effects of ocean acidification. Natural reef resilience can be used as a recovery model for coral reefs and an opportunity for management in marine protected areas (MPAs).

Organizations which currently undertake coral reef and atoll restoration projects using simple methods of plant propagation:

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management Council</span>

The Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management Council (WPRFMC) is one of eight regional councils established under the Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act (MSA) in 1976 to manage offshore fisheries. The WPRFMC's jurisdiction includes the US exclusive economic zone (EEZ) waters around the State of Hawaii; US Territories of American Samoa and Guam; the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI); and the US Pacific remote island areas of Johnston, Midway, Palmyra and Wake Atolls; Baker, Howland and Jarvis Islands; and Kingman Reef. This area of nearly 1.5 million square miles is the size of the continental United States and constitutes about half of the entire US EEZ. It spans both sides of the equator and both sides of the dateline. The WPRFMC also manages domestic fisheries based in the US Pacific Islands that operate on the high seas.

The Coral Triangle Initiative on Coral Reefs, Fisheries, and Food Security (CTI-CFF), or the Coral Triangle Initiative (CTI), is a multilateral collaborative partnership among six countries. Partners work together to sustain living marine and coastal resources by addressing crucial issues such as food security, climate change, and marine biodiversity.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Marine policy of the Barack Obama administration</span>

The Marine Policy of the Barack Obama administration comprises several significant environmental policy decisions for the oceans made during his two terms in office from 2009 to 2017. By executive action, US President Barack Obama increased fourfold the amount of protected marine space in waters under United States control, setting a major precedent for global ocean conservation. Using the U.S. president's authority under the Antiquities Act of 1906, he expanded to 200 nautical miles the seaward limits of Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument in Hawaiʻi and the Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument around the U.S. island possessions in the Central Pacific. In the Atlantic, Obama created the Northeast Canyons and Seamounts Marine National Monument, the first marine monument in the U.S. exclusive economic zone (EEZ) in the Atlantic.

References

  1. Koss, J. (2015). Advancing Coral Reef Science And Conservation with Technology. Sea Technology, 33.
  2. National Ocean Service . (2019, February 6). Funding America's Coral Reef Conservation Efforts. Retrieved from https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/annualreport18/crcp.html
  3. U.S. Geological Survey. (2017, September). NOAA Coral Reef Conservation Program. Retrieved from https://www.usgs.gov/media/images/noaa-coral-reef-conservation-program
  4. U.S. Department of Commerce. (2010, April). Implementation of the National Coral Reef Action Strategy. Retrieved from http://climatechange.lta.org/wp-content/uploads/cct/2015/02/Implementation-of-the-national-corar-reef-action-strategy.pdf
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  6. Lam, V., Doropoulos C, & Mumby, P. (2017, February 10). The influence of resilience-based management on coral reef monitoring . Retrieved from PLoS ONE: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0172064
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  8. Coral Reef Conservation Program. (2018). Strategic Plan. Silvery Spring, MD
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  11. Coral Reef Conservation Program. (2018). Strategic Plan. Silvery Spring, MD: NOAA
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  14. Donovan, C., Kimball, J., Swanson, D., Couch, C., Vargas-Angel, B., Williams, I., . . . Kel. (2018, May 12). 2018 Status Report Scoring Methodology for Pacific Jurisdictions . Retrieved from National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration : https://www.coris.noaa.gov/monitoring/status_report/docs/Pacific_Status_Reports_Methods_12-5-18.pdf
  15. US Fed News Service . (2005). NOAA official comments on Coral Reef Conservation Act 2000. Washington: HT Digital Streams Limited.
  16. Maynard, J., Marshall, P., Parker, B., Mcleod, E., Ahmadia, G., Hooidonk, v. R., . . . Tamelander, J. (2017). A guide to assessing coral reef resilience for decision support. Nairobi, Kenya: UN Environment.
  17. National Ocean Service . (2019, February 6). Funding America's Coral Reef Conservation Efforts. Retrieved from https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/annualreport18/crcp.html
  18. National Ocean Service . (2019, February 6). Funding America's Coral Reef Conservation Efforts. Retrieved from https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/annualreport18/crcp.html
  19. National Ocean Service . (2019, February 6). Funding America's Coral Reef Conservation Efforts. Retrieved from https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/annualreport18/crcp.html
  20. Levine, A. S., & Feinholz, C. L. (2015). Participatory GIS to inform coral reef ecosystem management. Applied Geography, 60-69.
  21. Florida International University. (2015). Grazing fish can help save imperiled coral reefs . New York: PR Newswire.
  22. West, Jordan et al. “Climate-Smart Design for Ecosystem Management: A Test Application for Coral Reefs.” Environmental Management 59.1 (2017): 102–117. Web.