Maria developed from a tropical wave on September 16 east of the Lesser Antilles. Steady strengthening and organization took place initially,until favorable conditions enabled it to undergo explosive intensification on the afternoon of September 18,achieving Category 5 strength just before making landfall on the island of Dominica that night. After crossing the island and weakening slightly,Maria re-intensified and achieved its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 175mph (280km/h) and a pressure of 908 mbar (hPa;26.81 inHg). On September 20,an eyewall replacement cycle weakened Maria to a high-end Category 4 hurricane by the time it struck Puerto Rico. The hurricane re-emerged weaker from land interaction,but quickly restrengthened back into a major hurricane again the following day. Passing north of The Bahamas,Maria remained a powerful hurricane over the following week as it slowly paralleled the East Coast of the United States,gradually weakening over time as conditions became less favorable. Maria then stalled and swung eastward over the open Atlantic,becoming extratropical on September 30 before dissipating by October 2.
Maria brought catastrophic devastation to the entirety of Dominica,destroying housing stock and infrastructure beyond repair,and practically eradicating the island's lush vegetation. The neighboring islands of Guadeloupe and Martinique endured widespread flooding,damaged roofs,and uprooted trees. Puerto Rico suffered catastrophic damage and a major humanitarian crisis;most of the island's population suffered from flooding and a lack of resources,compounded by a slow relief process. The storm caused the worst electrical blackout in US history,which persisted for several months.[3] Maria also landed in the northeast Caribbean during relief efforts from another Category 5 hurricane,Irma,which crossed the region two weeks prior. The total death toll is 3,059:an estimated 2,975 in Puerto Rico,[4][5] 65 in Dominica,5 in the Dominican Republic,4 in Guadeloupe,4 in the contiguous United States,3 in the United States Virgin Islands,and 3 in Haiti. Maria was the deadliest hurricane in Dominica since the 1834 Padre Ruíz hurricane[6] and the deadliest in Puerto Rico since the 1899 San Ciriaco hurricane.[7] This makes it the deadliest named Atlantic hurricane of the 21st century to date.
Maria originated from a tropical wave that left the western coast of Africa on September 12.[5] Gradual organization occurred as it progressed westward across the tropical Atlantic under the influence of a mid-level ridge that was located to the system's north,[8][9] and by 12:00UTC on September 16, it had developed into Tropical Depression Fifteen, as deep convection consolidated and developed into curved bands wrapping into an increasingly-defined center of circulation. At that time, it was located about 665mi (1,070km) east of Barbados.[5] Favorable conditions along the system's path consisting of warm sea surface temperatures of 29°C (84°F), low wind shear, and abundant moisture aloft allowed the disturbance to consolidate and become Tropical Storm Maria 6 hours later, after satellite images had indicated that the low-level circulation of the wave had become well-defined.[5][10]
Maria gradually strengthened, and by late on September 17, although the center had temporarily become exposed, a convective burst over the center enabled it to become a hurricane.[11] Shortly afterward, explosive intensification occurred, with Maria nearly doubling its winds from 85mph (140km/h)—a Category1 hurricane, to 165mph (270km/h)—a Category5 hurricane, in just 24 hours, by which time it was located just 15mi (24km) east-southeast of Dominica late on September 18;[5][12] the rate of intensification that occurred has been exceeded only a few times in the Atlantic since records began. Maria made landfall in Dominica at 01:15UTC on September 19,[13] becoming the first Category5 hurricane on record to strike the island nation.[14]
Maria making landfall as a Category5 hurricane on Dominica on September 19
Entering the Caribbean Sea, Maria weakened slightly to a Category4 hurricane due to land interaction with the island of Dominica, however it quickly restrengthened to a Category5 hurricane and attained its peak intensity with winds of 175mph (280km/h) and a pressure of 908mbar (hPa; 26.81inHg) at 03:00UTC on September 20 while southeast of Puerto Rico; this ranks it as the eleventh-most intense Atlantic hurricane since reliable records began.[5] An eyewall replacement cycle caused Maria weaken to Category4 strength before it made landfall near Yabucoa, Puerto Rico at 10:15UTC (6:15am local time) that day with winds of 155mph (250km/h)—the most intense to strike on the island since the 1928 San Felipe Segundo hurricane.[15] Maria weakened significantly while traversing Puerto Rico, but was able to restrengthen to a major hurricane once it emerged over the Atlantic later that afternoon, eventually attaining a secondary peak intensity with winds of 125mph (201km/h) on September 22, while north of Hispaniola.[16]
Maria then began fluctuating in intensity for the next few days as the eye periodically appeared and disappeared, while slowly nearing the East Coast of the United States, although southwesterly wind shear gradually weakened the hurricane.[5] By September 25, it passed over cooler sea surface temperatures that had been left behind by Hurricane Jose a week prior, causing its inner core to collapse and the structure of the storm to change significantly.[17] On September 28, a trough that was beginning to emerge off the Northeastern United States swung Maria eastward out to sea, while also weakening to a tropical storm.[5] Periodic bursts of convection near the center managed to maintain Maria's intensity as it accelerated east-northeast across the northern Atlantic Ocean, but interaction with an encroaching frontal zone ultimately resulted in the storm becoming an extratropical cyclone on September 30,[18] which continued east-northeastward, before dissipating on October 2.[5]
Preparations
The U.S. Navy helps evacuate military personnel from the U.S. Virgin Islands, ahead of Hurricane Maria.
Prior to both Hurricanes Irma and Maria, the Puerto Rico Electric Power Authority (PREPA), already struggling with increasing debt, had seen budget cuts imposed by PROMESA as well as the loss of 30percent of its work force since 2012. With the median age of PREPA power plants at 44years, an aging infrastructure across the island made the electric grid more susceptible to damage from storms. Inadequate safety mechanisms also plagued Puerto Rico's electric company, and local newspapers frequently reported on its poor maintenance and outdated control systems.[24]
According to the non-profit environmental advocacy group Natural Resources Defense Council, the island's water system was already in substandard conditions prior to hurricanes Irma and Maria. The NRDC reported that seventy percent of the island had water that did not meet the standards of the 1974 Safe Drinking Water Act.[25]
Still recovering from Hurricane Irma two weeks prior, approximately 80,000remained without power as Maria approached.[26] FEMA's Caribbean Distribution Center warehouse, its only emergency stockpile in the islands, is located on Puerto Rico. By September 15, 2017, 83% of the items there, including 90% of the water and all of the tarps and cots, had been deployed for post-Irma relief, mostly to the U.S. Virgin Islands. Maria arrived before supplies were replenished.[27]
Evacuation orders were issued in Puerto Rico in advance of Maria, and officials announced that 450 shelters would open in the afternoon of September 18.[28] By September 19, 2017, at least 2,000 people in Puerto Rico had sought shelter.[29] Using anonymous aggregate cell phone tracking data provided by Google from users that opted to share location data, researchers reported that travel from Puerto Rico increased 20% the day before the hurricane made landfall. Puerto Rican travelers often chose to go to Orlando, Miami, New York City, and Atlanta. Internally, there was an influx of people into San Juan.[30]
Mainland United States
As Maria approached the coast of North Carolina and threatened to bring tropical storm conditions, a storm surge warning was issued for the coast between Ocracoke Inlet and Cape Hatteras, while a storm surge watch was issued for the Pamlico Sound, the lower Neuse River, and the Alligator River on the morning of September 26. A state of emergency was declared by officials in Dare and Hyde counties, while visitors were ordered to evacuate Hatteras and Ocracoke islands.[31] Ferry service between Ocracoke and Cedar Island was suspended the evening of September 25, and remained suspended on September 26 and 27, due to rough seas, while ferry service between Ocracoke and Hatteras Island was suspended on September 26 and 27.[31][32] The port in Morehead City was closed by the United States Coast Guard on the morning of September 26.[31] Schools in Dare County closed on September 26 and 27, while schools in Carteret and Tyrrell counties, along with Ocracoke Island, dismissed early on September 26, in anticipation of high winds.[31][32] Schools in Currituck County were closed on September 27, due to high winds.[32]
The outer rainbands of Maria produced heavy rainfall and strong gusts across the southern Windward Islands.[47] The Hewanorra and George F. L. Charles airports of Saint Lucia respectively recorded 4.33 and 3.1in (110 and 79mm) of rain, though even higher quantities fell elsewhere on the island.[48] Scattered rock slides, landslides and uprooted trees caused minor damage and blocked some roads.[49] Several districts experienced localized blackouts due to downed or damaged power lines.[50] The agricultural sector, especially the banana industry, suffered losses from the winds.[49]
Heavy rainfall amounting to 3–5in (76–127mm)[51] caused scattered flooding across Barbados; in Christ Church, the flood waters trapped residents from the neighborhood of Goodland in their homes and inundated the business streets of Saint Lawrence Gap.[52][53] Maria stirred up rough seas that flooded coastal sidewalks in Bridgetown and damaged boats as operators had difficulties securing their vessels.[54] High winds triggered an island-wide power outage and downed a coconut tree onto a residence in Saint Joseph.[55][56]
Passing 30mi (48km) off the northern shorelines, Maria brought torrential rainfall and strong gusts to Martinique but spared the island of its hurricane-force windfield,[57] which at the time extended 25mi (40km) around the eye.[58] The commune of Le Marigot recorded 6.7 inches (170mm) of rain over a 24-hour period.[59] By September 19, Maria had knocked out power to 70,000 households, about 40% of the population.[60] Water service was cut to 50,000 customers, especially in the communes of Le Morne-Rouge and Gros-Morne.[57][61] Numerous roads and streets, especially along the northern coast, were impassible due to rock slides, fallen trees and toppled power poles.[61][60] Streets in Fort-de-France were inundated.[57] In the seaside commune of Le Carbet, rough seas washed ashore large rocks and demolished some coastal structures,[57][62] while some boats were blown over along the bay of the commune of Schœlcher.[63] Martinique's agricultural sector suffered considerable losses: about 70% of banana crops sustained wind damage, with nearly every tree downed along the northern coast.[64] There were no deaths on the island, although four people were injured in the hurricane—two seriously and two lightly.[61] Agricultural loss were estimated at €35million (US$42million).[39]
Dominica
Rainfall ahead of the hurricane caused several landslides in Dominica, as water levels across the island began to rise by the afternoon of September 18.[65] Maria made landfall at 21:15 AST that day (1:15 UTC, September 19) as a Category5 hurricane with maximum sustained winds of 165mph (266km/h).[13] These winds, the most extreme to ever impact the island,[66] damaged the roof of practically every home—including the official residence of Prime Minister Roosevelt Skerrit, who required rescue when his home began to flood.[67] Downing all cellular, radio and internet services, Maria effectively cut Dominica off from the outside world; the situation there remained unclear for a couple of days after the hurricane's passage.[68][69] Skerrit called the devastation "mind boggling" before going offline, and indicated immediate priority was to rescue survivors rather than assess damage.[68] Initial ham radio reports from the capital of Roseau on September 19 indicated "total devastation," with half the city flooded, cars stranded, and stretches of residential area "flattened".[70]
An aerial view of part of Roseau, revealing widespread damage to roofs. Flash floods clogged roads with debris—vegetative and structural—and mud.
The next morning, the first aerial footage of Dominica elucidated the scope of the destruction.[71] Maria left the mountainous country blanketed in a field of debris: Rows of houses along the entirety of the coastline were rendered uninhabitable, as widespread floods and landslides littered neighborhoods with the structural remnants.[71][72] The hurricane also inflicted extensive damage to roads and public buildings, such as schools, stores and churches,[72] and affected all of Dominica's 73,000 residents in some form or way.[73] The air control towers and terminal buildings of the Canefield and Douglas Charles airports were severely damaged, although the runways remained relatively intact and open to emergency landings.[73] The disaster affected all of the island's 53 health facilities, including the badly damaged primary hospital, compromising the safety of many patients.[71][74]
A road in the Roseau area is littered with structural debris, damaged vegetation and downed power poles and lines.
The infrastructure of Roseau was left in ruins; practically every power pole and line was downed, and the main road was reduced to fragments of flooded asphalt. The winds stripped the public library of its roof panels and demolished all but one wall of the Baptist church.[75] To the south of Roseau, riverside flooding and numerous landslides impacted the town of Pointe Michel, destroying about 80% of its structures and causing most of the deaths in the country.[76][77] Outside the capital area, the worst of the destruction was concentrated around the east coast and rural areas, where collapsed roads and bridges isolated many villages.[73] The port and fishing town of Marigot, Saint Andrew Parish, was 80% damaged.[78] Settlements in Saint David Parish, such as Castle Bruce, Good Hope and Grand Fond, had been practically eradicated; many homes hung off cliffs or decoupled from their foundations. In Rosalie, rushing waters gushed over the village's bridge and damaged facilities in its bay area. Throughout Saint Patrick Parish, the extreme winds ripped through roofs and scorched the vegetation. Buildings in Grand Bay, the parish's main settlement, experienced total roof failure or were otherwise structurally compromised. Many houses in La Plaine caved in or slid into rivers, and its single bridge was broken.[79]
Overall, the hurricane damaged the roofs of as much as 98% of the island's buildings,[73] including those serving as shelters;[71] half of the houses had their frames destroyed.[73] Its ferocious winds defoliated nearly all vegetation, splintering or uprooting thousands of trees and decimating the island's lush rainforests.[80] The agricultural sector, a vital source of income for the country, was completely wiped out: 100% of banana and tuber plantations was lost, as well as vast amounts of livestock and farm equipment.[73] In Maria's wake, Dominica's population suffered from an island-wide water shortage due to uprooted pipes. The Assessment Capacities Project estimates that the hurricane has caused EC$3.69billion (US$1.37billion) in losses across the island, which is equal to 226 percent of its 2016 GDP.[33] As of April 12, 2019, a total of 65fatalities have been confirmed across the island, including 34 who are missing and presumed to be dead.[34]
Post-hurricane relief aid that was brought to Dominica from regional partners and aiding countries additionally brought several non-native species that became established and which local stakeholders are still trying to remove in 2022.[81]
Guadeloupe
Numerous trees fell across Guadeloupe, clogging roadways with debris.
Blustery conditions spread over Guadeloupe as Maria tracked to the south of the archipelago, which endured hours of unabating hurricane-force winds.[82] The strongest winds blew along the southern coastlines of Basse-Terre Island: Gourbeyre observed a peak wind speed of 101mph (163km/h), while winds up north in nearby Baillif reached 92mph (148km/h).[83] Along those regions, the hurricane kicked up extremely rough seas with 20ft (6.1m) waves.[84] The combination of rough seas and winds was responsible for widespread structural damage and flooding throughout the archipelago, especially from Pointe-à-Pitre, along Grand-Terre Island's southwestern coast, to Petit-Bourg and the southern coasts on Basse-Terre Island.[85] Aside from wind-related effects, rainfall from Maria was also significant. In just a day, the hurricane dropped nearly a month's worth of rainfall at some important locations: Pointe-à-Pitre recorded a 24-hour total of 7.5 inches (190mm), while the capital of Basse-Terre measured 6.4in (160mm).[59] Even greater quantities fell at higher elevations of Basse Terre Island, with a maximum total of 18.07in (459mm) measured at the mountainous locality of Matouba, Saint-Claude.[83]
Throughout the archipelago, the hurricane left 40% of the population (80,000 households) without power and 25% of landline users without service.[86] The islands of Marie-Galante, La Désirade and especially Les Saintes bore the brunt of the winds, which caused heavy damage to structures and nature alike and cut the islands off from their surroundings for several days.[85][86] Homes on Terre-de-Haut Island of Les Saintes were flooded or lost their roofs.[87] On the mainland, sections of Pointe-à-Pitre stood under more than 3.3 feet (1.0m) of water, and the city's hospital sustained significant damage.[61] The Basse-Terre region suffered severe damage to nearly 100% of its banana crops, comprising a total area of more than 5,000 acres (2,000 hectares); farmers described the destruction to their plantations as "complete annihilation".[64] Beyond their impact on farmland, the strong winds ravaged much of the island's vegetation: fallen trees and branches covered practically every major road and were responsible for one death.[86] Another person was killed upon being swept out to sea.[85] Two people disappeared at sea after their vessel capsized offshore La Désirade, east of mainland Grande-Terre,[86] and they are presumed to be dead afterwards.[37] Damage from Maria across Guadeloupe amounted to at least €100million (US$120million).[88]
U.S. Virgin Islands
One of the many vessels salvaged following Hurricane Maria on St. Thomas
Two weeks after Hurricane Irma hit St. Thomas and St. John as a Category 5 hurricane, Hurricane Maria's weaker outer eyewall was reported by the National Hurricane Center (NHC) to have crossed Saint Croix, while the hurricane was at Category 5 intensity. Sustained winds at the Sandy Point National Wildlife Refuge on St. Croix reached 99 to 104mph (159 to 167km/h) and gusted to 137mph (220km/h).[89] Damage was most extensive in the town of Frederiksted,[citation needed] on the west end of St. Croix, as well as along the southern shoreline, leaving 3 people dead. Weather stations on St. Croix recorded between 10 and 20 inches (250 and 510mm) of rain from the hurricane, and estimates for St. John and St. Thomas were somewhat less.[90]
The hurricane killed two people, both in their homes: one person drowned and another was trapped by a mudslide.[43] A third person had a fatal heart attack during the hurricane.[44] The hurricane caused severe damage to St. Croix. It took almost a year for power to be restored to most residents. U.S. President Donald Trump declared a major disaster in the U.S. Virgin Islands one day after Maria hit. The move freed up federal funding for people on the island of St. Croix. After both hurricanes, the office of V.I. congresswoman Stacey Plaskett stated that 90% of buildings in the Virgin Islands were damaged or destroyed and 13,000 of those buildings had lost their roofs.[91] The Governor Juan F. Luis Hospital & Medical Center on St. Croix suffered roof damage and flooding, but remained operational.[92]
Impact in the Greater Antilles and the United States
The storm made landfall on Puerto Rico on Wednesday, September 20, near the Yabucoa municipality at 10:15UTC (6:15a.m. local time) as a high-end Category4 hurricane with winds of 155mph (249km/h).[94] A sustained wind of 64mph (103km/h) with a gust to 113mph (182km/h) was reported in San Juan, immediately prior to the hurricane making landfall on the island. After landfall, wind gusts of 109mph (175km/h) were reported at Yabucoa Harbor and 118mph (190km/h) at Camp Santiago.[95] A minimum barometric pressure reading of 926.6mbar (27.36inHg) was reported in Yabucoa.[5] In addition, heavy rainfall occurred throughout the territory, peaking at 37.9 inches (960mm) in Caguas.[96] The eyewall replacement cycle that caused María to weaken to Category4 strength also caused the eye to triple in size as the diameter expanded 9–28nmi (10–32mi) prior to landfall. This change in size caused the area exposed to high-intensity winds on the island to be far greater.[5] Widespread flooding affected San Juan, waist-deep in some areas, and numerous structures lost their roof.[94] The coastal La Perla neighborhood of San Juan was largely destroyed.[97]Cataño saw extensive damage, with the Juana Matos neighborhood estimated to be 80-percent destroyed.[98] The primary airport in San Juan, the Luis Muñoz Marín International Airport, was slated to reopen on September 22.[99]
Extensive damage occurred to hundreds of thousands of buildings throughout Puerto Rico due to high winds, heavy rainfall, storm surge, wave action and landslides. Ricardo Rosselló estimated that over 300,000 homes had been destroyed and many more damaged across the commonwealth. Other estimates included 166,000 residential buildings damaged or destroyed and 472,000 housing units having received major damage or having been destroyed.[100]
Storm surge and flash flooding—stemming from flood gate releases at La Plata Lake Dam—converged on the town of Toa Baja, trapping thousands of residents. Survivors indicate that flood waters rose at least 6ft (1.8m) in 30minutes, with flood waters reaching a depth of 15 feet (4.6m) in some areas. More than 2,000people were rescued once military relief reached the town 24hours after the storm. At least eight people died from the flooding, while many were unaccounted for.[101]
Thousands of homes suffered varying degrees of damage while large swaths of vegetation were shredded by the hurricane's violent winds.
On September 24, Puerto Rico's Governor Ricardo Rosselló estimated that the damage from Hurricane Maria in Puerto Rico was probably over the $8billion damage figure from Hurricane Georges.[102] Approximately 80percent of the territory's agriculture was lost due to the hurricane, with agricultural losses estimated at $780million.[103]
The hurricane completely destroyed the island's power grid, leaving all 3.4million residents without electricity.[98][104][105] Governor Rosselló stated that it could take months to restore power in some locations,[106] with San Juan Mayor Carmen Yulín Cruz estimating that some areas would remain without power for four to six months.[107] Communication networks were crippled across the island. Ninety-five percent of cell networks were down, with 48 of the island's 78 counties networks being completely inoperable.[104] Eighty-five percent of above-ground phone and internet cables were knocked out.[108] Only twelve radio stations, namely WAPA 680 AM, WPAB 550 AM & WISO 1260 AM of Ponce, WKJB 710 AM, WPRA 990 AM & WTIL 1300 AM of Mayaguez, WMIA 1070 AM of Arecibo, WVOZ 1580 AM of Morovis, WXRF 1590 AM of Guayama, WALO 1240 AM of Humacao and WOIZ 1130 AM of Guayanilla, remained on the air during the storm.[104]
Map of landslides in Puerto Rico – Hurricane Maria 2017
Hurricane Maria caused landslides across the island and in some municipalities there were more than 25 landslides per square mile.[109][110]
The US NWS NEXRAD radar in Puerto Rico destroyed by Maria
The NEXRADDoppler weather radar of Puerto Rico was blown away. The radome which covers the radar antenna, and which was designed to withstand winds of more than 130mph, was destroyed while the antenna of 30 feet in diameter was blown from the pedestal, the latter remaining intact. The radar is 2,800ft (850m) above sea level, and the anemometer at the site measured winds of about 145mph (233km/h) before communications broke, which means winds at that height were likely 20 percent higher than what was seen at sea level. The radar was rebuilt and finally brought back online 9 months later.[111][112]
The nearby island of Vieques suffered similarly extensive damage. Communications were largely lost across the island. Widespread property destruction took place with many structures leveled.[113] The remaining structures on the island of Culebra were extremely vulnerable to Maria's powerful winds after having recently experienced major damage due to Hurricane Irma, causing the complete destruction of many wooden houses, along with blown off roofs and sunken boats.[5]
Hurricane Maria at Coast Guard Sector San Juan
The former survey ship Ferrel, carrying a family of four, issued a distress signal while battling 20-foot seas (6.1m) and 115mph winds (185km/h) on September 20.[114] Communications with the vessel were lost near Vieques on September 20. The United States Coast Guard, United States Navy, and British Royal Navy conducted search-and-rescue operations using an HC-130 aircraft, a fast response cutter, USSKearsarge, RFAMounts Bay and Navy helicopters.[115] On September 21, the mother and her two children were rescued while the father drowned inside the capsized vessel.[114]
Maria's Category 4 winds broke a 96-foot (29m) line feed antenna of the Arecibo Observatory, causing it to fall 500 feet (150m) and puncturing the dish below, greatly reducing its ability to function until repairs could be made.[116][117]
Hurricane Maria greatly affected Puerto Rico's agriculture. Coffee was the worst affected crop, with 18 million coffee trees destroyed, which will require about five to ten years to bring back at least 15% of the coffee production of the island.[118]
The Whitney Museum of American Art documented Hurricane Maria experiences in Puerto Rico and its aftermath in an art exhibition November 23, 2022 – April 23, 2023: "no existe un mundo poshuracán: Puerto Rican Art in the Wake of Hurricane Maria."[119]
Hispaniola
Infrared satellite loop of Maria passing east of the Dominican Republic on September 21, after leaving Puerto Rico.
Torrential rains and strong winds impacted the Dominican Republic as Maria tracked northeast of the country. Assessments on September 22 indicated that 110homes were destroyed, 570 were damaged, and 3,723 were affected by flooding. Approximately 60,000people lost power in northern areas of the country. Flooding and landslides rendered many roads impassable, cutting off 38communities.[120] Five people, all of them males, were killed in the Dominican Republic: four of them were of Haitian origin, killed when they were swept away by floodwaters; the fifth person was a Dominican man who died in a landslide.[35] Infrastructural damage amounted to RD$3billion (US$63million).[36]
Hurricane Maria's center passed 250km (160mi) from Haiti's northern coast, but triggered a large amount of rain and some flooding in Haiti. Three deaths were reported: a 45-year-old man died in the commune of Limbe, in the department of the North, while attempting to cross a flooded river. Two other people, a woman and a man, died in Cornillon, a small town 40km (25mi) east of the capital Port-au-Prince, according to the authorities.[38]
Mainland United States
Maria brushed the Outer Banks of North Carolina on September 26, as the center of the storm passed by offshore and brought tropical storm conditions to the area, along with a storm surge, large waves, and rip currents to the coast. The storm knocked out power to 800 Duke Energy Progress customers in the Havelock area, with restoration of power expected to take several hours.[31]Dominion North Carolina Power and Cape Hatteras Electric Cooperative experienced scattered power outages. Winds of 23mph (37km/h) and gusts of 41mph (66km/h) were reported at Dare County Regional Airport at Manteo on September 27, while winds of 40mph (64km/h) were reported in Duck, North Carolina.[32] Maria caused beach erosion at the ferry terminal at the north end of Ocracoke Island that washed out a portion of the paved lanes where vehicles wait to board the ferry. By the morning of September 26, the storm flooded North Carolina Highway 12 along the coast.[31] Rip currents from Maria caused three swimmers to drown and several others to be rescued at the Jersey Shore on the weekend of September 23–24.[121] A fourth drowning death occurred in Fernandina Beach, Florida.[46]
Aftermath
Dominica
People are trying to be strong in Dominica, like everything is fine, but it's not. Everywhere needs rebuilding but there is no money to rebuild things with. OK, so we have some food and water—but how long for? Everything else is gone.
A SH-60 Seahawk flies over Dominica en route to deliver humanitarian aid. The mountainous terrain of the island poses serious challenges to relief operations in more remote areas.
In the wake of the hurricane, more than 85% of the island's houses were damaged, of which more than 25% were completely destroyed, leaving more than 50,000 of the island's 73,000 residents to be displaced.[122] Following the destruction of thousands of homes, most supermarkets and the water supply system, many of Dominica's residents were in dire need of food, water and shelter for days.[72] With no access to electricity or running water, and with sewage systems destroyed, fears of widespread diarrhea and dysentery arose. The island's agriculture, a vital source of income for many, was obliterated as most trees were flattened. Meanwhile, the driving force of the economy—tourism—was expected to be scarce in the months that followed Maria. Prime Minister Roosevelt Skerrit characterized the devastation wrought by Irma and Maria as a sign of climate change and the threat it poses to the survival of his country, stating, "To deny climate change ... is to deny a truth we have just lived."[122] Many islanders suffered respiratory problems as a result of excessive dust borne out of the debris. Light rainfall in the weeks following Maria alleviated this problem, although it also slowed recovery efforts, particularly rebuilding damaged rooftops.[citation needed]
The prime minister urged churches to encourage their membership to provide housing for senior citizens and disabled, many of whom remained in damaged structures despite tarpaulin donations from Venezuela, Israel, Cuba, Jamaica, and other countries. As schools began to reopen on October16, the United Nations Children's Fund reported that the entire child population of Dominica—23,000 children—remained vulnerable due to restricted access to clean drinking water.[citation needed] Efforts to rebuild homes and buildings across the island were steady, albeit slowed due to lack of funds. Almost two years after Maria, shelters remained operational as many homes still lacked significant roofing.[128]
"US Officials Say Damaged Infrastructure Slows Aid Distribution in Puerto Rico" video from Voice of America
There's a humanitarian emergency here in Puerto Rico. ... This is an event without precedent.
Broken windows in Aguas Buenas
The power grid was effectively destroyed by the hurricane, leaving millions without electricity.[131] Governor Ricardo Rosselló estimated that Maria caused at least US$90billion in damage[132][133] and in 2018 the US National Hurricane Center updated its list of costliest hurricanes to include that figure.[134]
On September 26, 2017, 95% of the island was without power, less than half the population had tap water, and 95% of the island had no cell phone service.[135] On October 6, a little more than two weeks after the hurricane, 89% still had no power, 44% had no water service, and 58% had no cell service.[136]
Two weeks after the hurricane,international relief organization Oxfam chose to intervene for the first time on American soil since Hurricane Katrina in 2005.[137]
One month after the hurricane, 88% of the island was without power (about 3 million people), 29% lacked tap water (about 1million people), and 40% of the island had no cell service. A month after the hurricane, most hospitals were open,[138] but most were on backup generators that provide limited power. Angelique Sina's non-profit organization, Friends of Puerto Rico, had supplied generators for hospitals in two cities, by November 2017.[139] About half of sewage treatment plants on the island were still not functioning. FEMA reported 60,000 homes needed roofing help, and had distributed 38,000 roofing tarps.[140] The island's highways and bridges remained heavily damaged nearly a month later. Only 392 miles of Puerto Rico's 5,073 miles of road were open. Some towns continued to be isolated and delivery of relief supplies including food and water were hampered—helicopters were the only alternative.[141]
By October 1, 2017, there were ongoing fuel shortage and distribution problems, with 720 of 1,100 gas stations open.[142] In November the New York Times reported there had been a spike in suicides in the storm's aftermath as residents struggled with life without electricity. The rate of suicides doubled over the pre-Maria rate.[143]
The Guajataca Dam was structurally damaged, and on September 22, the National Weather Service issued a flash flood emergency for parts of the area in response.[144] Tens of thousands of people were ordered to evacuate the area, with about 70,000 thought to be at risk.[145]
The entirety of Puerto Rico was declared a Federal Disaster Zone shortly after the hurricane.[146] The Federal Emergency Management Agency planned to open an air bridge with three to four aircraft carrying essential supplies to the island daily starting on September 22.[104] Beyond flights involving the relief effort, limited commercial traffic resumed at Luis Muñoz Marín International Airport on September 22 under primitive conditions. A dozen commercial flights operated daily, as of September 26, 2017.[147] By October 3, there were 39 commercial flights per day from all Puerto Rican airports, about a quarter of the normal number.[148] The next day, airports were reported to be operating at normal capacity.[149] The territory's government contracted 56small companies to assist in restoring power.[146] Eight FEMA Urban Search & Rescue (US&R) teams were deployed to assist in rescue efforts.[150]
Debris-clogged roads added to logistical challenges faced by rescue and relief crews.
Members of the South Carolina National Guard assisting with clean up efforts in Caguas
On September 29, the hospital shipUSNSComfort left port at Norfolk, Virginia to help victims of Hurricanes Irma and Maria, and arrived in San Juan on October 3. A couple of days later, Comfort departed on an around the island tour to assist, remaining a dozen miles off shore.[161] Patients were brought to the ship by helicopter or boat tender after being referred by Puerto Rico's Department of Health. However, most of the 250 bed floating state-of-the-art hospital went unused despite overburdened island clinics and hospitals because there were few referrals.[162][163] Governor Rosselló explained on or about October 17 that "The disconnect or the apparent disconnect was in the communications flow" and added "I asked for a complete revision of that so that we can now start sending more patients over there."[163] After remaining offshore for three weeks, the Comfort docked in San Juan on October 27, briefly departing only once to restock at sea from a naval resupply ship.[161] By November 8, 2017, Comfort's staff had treated 1,476 patients, including 147 surgeries and two births.[164]
On September 27, the Pentagon reopened two major airfields on Puerto Rico and started sending aircraft, specialized units, and a hospital ship to assist in the relief effort; Brigadier General Richard C. Kim, the deputy commanding general of United States Army North, was responsible for coordinating operations between the military, FEMA and other government agencies, and the private sector.[165] Massive amounts of water, food, and fuel either had been delivered to ports in Puerto Rico or were held up at ports in the mainland United States because there was a lack of truck drivers to move the goods into the interior; the lack of communication networks hindered the effort as only 20% of drivers reported to work.[166] By September 28, the Port of San Juan had been able to dispatch only 4% of deliveries received and had very little room to accept additional shipments.[167] By September 28, 44 percent of the population remained without drinking water and the U.S. military was shifting from "a short term, sea-based response to a predominantly land-based effort designed to provide robust, longer-term support" with fuel delivery a top priority.[168] A joint Army National Guard and Marine expeditionary unit (MEU) team established an Installation Staging Base at the former Roosevelt Roads Naval Station; they transported via helicopter Department of Health and Human Services assessment teams to hospitals across Puerto Rico to determine medical requirements.[168] On September 29, the amphibious assault shipUSSWasp which had been providing relief activities to the island of Dominica was diverted to Puerto Rico.[169] By September 30, FEMA official Alejandro de la Campa stated that 5% of electricity, 33% of the telecommunications infrastructure, and 50% of water services had been restored to the island.[170]
More than a week after Hurricane Maria struck, residents of Ponce, Puerto Rico wait in long lines at an ATM to withdraw cash.
On September 28, 2017, Lieutenant General Jeffrey S. Buchanan was dispatched to Puerto Rico to lead all military hurricane relief efforts there and to see how the military could be more effective in the recovery effort, particularly in dealing with the thousands of containers of supplies that were stuck in port because of "red tape, lack of drivers, and a crippling power outage".[172][173] On September 29 he stated that there were not enough troops and equipment in place but more would be arriving soon.[174]
With centralized fossil-fuel-based power plants and grid infrastructure expected to be out of commission for weeks to months, some renewable energy projects were in the works, including the shipment of hundreds of TeslaPowerwall battery systems to be integrated with solar PV systems[175] and Sonnen solar microgrid projects at 15 emergency community centers; the first were expected to be completed in October.[176] In addition, other solar companies jumped into help, including Sunnova and New Start Solar. A charity called Light Up Puerto Rico raised money to both purchase and deliver solar products, including solar panels, on Oct. 19.[177] The idea would be to supplement the existing electrical grid with power from solar and wind farms. A complete replacement of fossil fuel infrastructure is unlikely as solar and wind are too intermittent and are also vulnerable to another hurricane.[178][179] Four of the five large solar farms on Puerto Rico were damaged and many of the wind turbines suffered damaged blades.[180][181]
Many TV and movie stars donated money to hurricane relief organizations to help the victims of Harvey and Maria. Prominently, Jennifer Aniston pledged a million U.S. dollars, dividing the amount equally between the Red Cross and the Ricky Martin Foundation for Puerto Rico. Martin's foundation had raised over three million dollars by October 13, 2017.[182]
On October 9, 2017, the United States Postal Service stated that 99 of its 128 offices were delivering packages and mail to residents, albeit some were working out of tents[183] and their offices had no power for one week after the hurricane. Care packages were coming in to Puerto Rico from all over and USPS hired temporary workers and had workers delivering packages 7 days a week, to help with the brunt.[184]
On October 10, 2017, Carnival Cruise Lines announced that it would resume departures of cruises from San Juan on October 15, 2017.[185] On October 13, both CNN and The Guardian reported that Puerto Ricans were drinking water that was being pumped from a well at an EPA Superfund site;[186][187] the water was later determined to be safe to drink.[188]
Mountain melted down by winds and heavy rain in Villalba.
On October 13, the Trump administration requested $4.9billion to fund a loan program that Puerto Rico could use to address basic functions and infrastructure needs.[190] On October 20, only 18.5% of the island had electricity, 49.1% of cell towers were working, and 69.5% of customers had running water, with the slowest restoration in the north.[191] Ports and commercial flights were back to normal operations, but 7.6% of USPS locations, 11.5% of supermarkets, and 21.4% of gas stations were still closed.[191] 4,246 people were still living in emergency shelters, and tourism was down by half.[191] On November 5, more than 100,000 people had left Puerto Rico for the mainland.[192] A December 17 report indicated that 600 people remained in shelters while 130,000 had left the island to go to the mainland.[193]
Three months after the hurricane, 45% of Puerto Ricans still had no power, over 1.5million people.[194] 14% of Puerto Rico had no tap water; cell service was returning with over 90% of service restored and 86% of cell towers functioning.[137]
Elaine Duke, the acting Secretary of Homeland Security at the time, recalled years later that President Trump suggested "selling" Puerto Rico in the aftermath of the hurricane. "Can we outsource the electricity? Can we sell the island? You know, or divest of that asset?" she remembered him saying. She said the topic was never mentioned again beyond that comment.[195] Former DHS Chief of Staff Miles Taylor said that Trump asked if they could swap Puerto Rico for Greenland, because ""Puerto Rico was dirty and the people were poor."[196]
Recovery between 2018 and 2019
'18 Months After Hurricane Maria, Puerto Rico Still Struggling' – video news report from Voice of America.
Puerto Rico is a major manufacturer of medical devices and pharmaceuticals, which represent 30% of its economy.[197] These factories shut down or greatly reduced production because of the hurricane, and were slowly recovering since.[198] This caused a months long shortage in medical supplies in the United States, especially of IV bags.[199][200] Small IV bags often come pre-filled with saline or common drugs in solution, and have forced health care providers to scramble behind the scenes for alternative methods of drug delivery.[198][199] In January 2018, when the shortage was projected to ease, flu season hit and led to a spike in patients.[199]
By the end of January2018, approximately 450,000 customers remained without power island-wide.[201] On February11, an explosion and fire damaged a power substation in Monacillo,[202] causing a large blackout in northern parts of the island, including Caguas, Carolina, Guaynabo, Juncos, San Juan, and Trujillo Alto. Cascading outages affected areas powered by substations in Villa Betina and Quebrada Negrito. Approximately 400megawatts of electricity production was lost.[201] On March1, 2018, a second major blackout occurred when a transmission line failed and caused two power stations to shut down;[203] more than 970,000people lost electricity.[204] Excluding those affected by the second blackout, more than 200,000people remained without power following Maria on March2, 2018.[203] Another large-scale blackout occurred on April12 from a line failure.[205] Less than a week later on April18, another blackout affected all of Puerto Rico. Rapid transit line passengers required help to disembark stalled trains.[206][dubious–discuss]
Power was not restored to all customers until August 2018.[207]
FEMA was a major supplier of relief in the form of bereavement, food, and other emergency supplies, as well as rebuilding some homes. FEMA's relief efforts in Puerto Rico post-Maria engaged a smaller work force and budget than the agency's efforts in Texas and Florida, in the wake of Hurricanes Harvey and Irma, respectively. FEMA does not rebuild homes to which the owner has no title, which has presented a major obstacle for many Puerto Ricans, who may have erected structures on family plots without procuring legal paperwork beforehand.[208] Compounding the problem in rebuilding the housing infrastructure is the fact that only about 50% of houses in Puerto Rico were covered by insurance policies that protect against wind damage, meaning that homeowners were reliant on their own money, FEMA, or other charities rather than insurance proceeds for rebuilding.[209] Although banks require that people with mortgages have homeowner's insurance, Puerto Rico has a low mortgage penetration rate with only 500,000 active mortgages in a population of 3 million as many homes are fully owned by families and passed to the next generation.[209] In addition, 10% of mortgage holders in Puerto Rico were delinquent at the time (compared to 5.8% on the mainland), an indication of the fragile state of the local economy.[209]
As a consequence of the hurricane, a population drop of approximately 14% was forecasted, due to an exodus to the mainland United States, according to a research study conducted by the Center for Puerto Rican Studies of Hunter College.[210] In preparation for the 2018 hurricane season, FEMA drastically increased its stockpiles on the island, including 35 times more bottled water, 43 times more tarps, and 16 times more meals as the previous year.[211] FEMA has added three new warehouses on Puerto Rico and pre-positioned emergency power generators at hospitals and water pump stations. The territorial government added satellite and radio equipment at hospitals, to prevent a communications blackout in the event the land and cell phone networks fail again.[212] In addition to FEMA, Direct Relief provided important medical supplies to those affected including insulin and vaccines.[213] A year later, repairs to homes were not completed, schools were shuttered, and residents were suffering from depression.[214]
Funding delays and continued recovery
Governor Rosselló submitted a vague request to Congress for $94.4 billion in disaster recovery funds, including $15 billion for health care, $17.7 for the power grid, $8.4 billion for schools,[215] and $46 billion for Community Development Block Grants.[216] The territorial government estimated it needed $132 billion from 2018 to 2028 to repair damaged infrastructure.[217]
As of November 2021, in addition to increasing emergency stockpiles in the territory, the federal government had allocated for Hurricane Maria recovery:[218]
$28.9 billion in government-to-government assistance:
The Government Accountability Office reported that as of August 2022, the government of Puerto Rico had expended only $5.3 billion of the government-to-government assistance, mostly on debris removal and emergency measures.[217][219] $407 million had been spent on permanent repairs.[220] GAO cited lack of local familiarity with disaster programs, problems procuring labor and supplies, inflation, and difficulty reaching agreement about project scopes.[217] As of September 2022, only $40.3 million out of a $13.2 billion FEMA budget had been spent on utility repairs.[220] FEMA attempted to bypass Puerto Rico's lack of capital by offering to disburse grant money up front rather than reimbursing already-spent funds, but the newness of this system caused delays.[220]
About 60% of households that applied for FEMA assistance were rejected, primarily for lack of proof of ownership.[221] Different legal and inheritance customs in Puerto Rico often result in there being no title deed to a property. Further, there have been accusations that FEMA policies have been applied unfairly.[222] January 2019 has also seen a $600million cut in food aid to Puerto Rico by the Trump Administration.[223][224]'
In 2019 and 2020, the Trump Administration added layers of federal review for HUD CDBG money not required for U.S. states, citing the possibility of corruption and mismanagement and delaying the release of funds.[225] Access to federal programs was further delayed by the 2018–2019 United States federal government shutdown.[226]The Washington Post reported that President Trump, contrary to the law he had signed, wanted to stop all aid to Puerto Rico and redirect it to Texas and Florida, and that (despite her citation of personal reasons) HUD Deputy Secretary Pam Patenaude resigned in part because of frustration over distribution efforts.[227]
In January 2021, people affected by the 2019–20 Puerto Rico earthquakes broke into a warehouse in Ponce, discovering aid supplies that should have been used in the aftermath of Hurricane Maria.[229]
As of January 2023, the roofs of residences damaged by Hurricanes Maria, Irma, and even Georges (in 1998) were still being repaired.[230]
The deaths of 64 people were initially directly attributed to the hurricane by the government of Puerto Rico.[233]
In the immediate months following Maria, the initial death toll relayed from the Government of Puerto Rico came into question by media outlets, politicians, and investigative journalists. Scores of people who survived the hurricane's initial onslaught later died from complications in its aftermath. Catastrophic damage to infrastructure and communication hampered efforts to accurately document the total loss of life.
Investigations into the hurricane's aftermath suggested a wide variety of possible death tolls. On October 11, 2017, Vox reported 81deaths directly or indirectly related to the hurricane, with another 450deaths awaiting investigation. Furthermore, they indicated 69people were missing.[234] Official statistics showed increases of about 20% and 27% in overall fatalities in Puerto Rico during September 2017, compared to 2016 and 2015, followed by a decrease of about 10% in October 2017 compared to the previous two Octobers.[235][236] There were 238 more reported deaths in September and October 2017 than during the same months in 2016, and 336 more compared to September and October 2015.[236] A two-week investigation in November2017 by CNN of 112funeral homes—approximately half of the island—found 499deaths that were said to be hurricane-related between September20 and October19.[237] Two scientists, Alexis Santos and Jeffrey Howard, estimated the death toll in Puerto Rico to be 1,085 by the end of November2017. They used average monthly deaths and the spike in fatalities following the hurricane. The value accounted for only reported deaths, and with limitations to communication, the actual toll could have been even higher.[238] Using a similar method, The New York Times indicated an increase of 1,052fatalities in the 42days following Maria compared to previous years. Significant spikes in causes of deaths compared to the two preceding Septembers included sepsis (+47%), pneumonia (+45%), emphysema (+43%), diabetes (+31%), and Alzheimer's and Parkinson's (+23%).[239] Robert Anderson at the National Center for Health Statistics conveyed the increase in monthly fatalities was statistically significant and likely driven in some capacity by Hurricane Maria.[239] A Harvard study found an estimated 15 excess deaths in the four months after the hurricane in interviews with 3,299 households, resulting in an estimated 793 to 8,498 excess deaths (with a 95% confidence interval).[240][241][242]
On December18, 2017, Governor Rosselló ordered a recount and a new analysis of the official death toll.[243] In February 2018, the task of reviewing the death toll was given to The George Washington University – Milken Institute School of Public Health with some assistance from the University of Puerto Rico at the request of researchers from George Washington University.[244] In response to three lawsuits, including one from CNN and Puerto Rico's Center for Investigative Journalism, the Government of Puerto Rico released updated death statistics for the months following Hurricane Maria. Compared to the average deaths in September to December 2013 – 2016, September to December 2017 had 1,427excess deaths; however, it is unknown how many of these deaths are attributable to the hurricane. The government acknowledged the death toll was greater than 64, but awaited the results of the government commissioned study to determine the true death toll.[245][246]
Donald J. Trump
@realDonaldTrump
3,000 people did not die in the two hurricanes that hit Puerto Rico. When I left the Island, AFTER the storm had hit, they had anywhere from 6 to 18 deaths. As time went by it did not go up by much. Then, a long time later, they started to report really large numbers, like 3,000 ...
In late August 2018, almost a year after the hurricane, the Milken Institute School of Public Health at George Washington University published their results. They estimated 2,658–3,290 additional people died in the six months after the hurricane over the expected background rate, after accounting for emigration from the island.[248] As result, the official death toll was updated from the initial 64 to an estimated 2,975 by the Governor of Puerto Rico.[233][214]
In September 2018, President Trump disputed the revised death toll. Writing on Twitter, Trump claimed that "3000 people did not die in the two hurricanes that hit Puerto Rico", but that the Democrats had inflated the official death toll to "make me look as bad as possible". Trump provided no evidence to support his claims.[249] The response was met with immediate criticism, including from Mayor of San Juan Carmen Yulín Cruz and Florida Congresswoman and fellow Republican Ileana Ros-Lehtinen.[250]
U.S. Virgin Islands
By September 25, 2017, the U.S. Coast Guard reported that the ports of Crown Bay, East Gregerie Channel, West Gregerie Channel, and Redhook Bay on Saint Thomas; the ports of Krause Lagoon, Limetree Bay, and Frederiksted on Saint Croix, and the port of Cruz Bay on Saint John were open with restrictions.[150] On September 25, 11 flights arrived with 200,000 meals, 144,000 liters of water, and tarps.[150] Troops were activated and deployed to the U.S. Virgin Islands from the Virginia National Guard,[251] the West Virginia National Guard,[252]Missouri National Guard,[253] and UH-60 Blackhawk helicopters from the Tennessee Army National Guard.
Nearly a month after the hurricane, electricity had been restored to only 16 percent of people in St. Thomas and 1.6 percent of people in St. Croix.[254] Three months after Maria, about half the entire U.S. territory still had no power, and 25% of the U.S. territory had no cell service.[255]
The U.S. government hurricane response was criticized as inadequate and slow.[258] The U.S. Department of Homeland Security (DHS) did not immediately waive the Jones Act for Puerto Rico, which prevented the commonwealth from receiving any aid and supplies from non-U.S.-flagged vessels from U.S. ports (shipments from non-US ports were unaffected).[259] A DHS Security spokesman said that there would be enough U.S. shipping for Puerto Rico, and that the limiting factors would be port capacity and local transport capacity.[260][261][262] The Jones Act was ultimately waived for a period of ten days starting on September 28 following a formal request by Puerto Rico Governor Rosselló.[263]
San Juan Mayor Carmen Yulín Cruz(pictured) harshly criticized the federal response to Maria in Puerto Rico as inadequate.
San Juan Mayor Carmen Yulín Cruz called the disaster a "terrifying humanitarian crisis" and on September 26 pleaded for relief efforts to be sped up.[264] The White House contested claims that the administration was not responding effectively.[265] General Joseph L. Lengyel, Chief of the National Guard Bureau, defended the Trump Administration's response, and reiterated that relief efforts were hampered by Puerto Rico being an island rather than on the mainland.[266] President Donald Trump responded to accusations that he does not care about Puerto Rico: "Puerto Rico is very important to me, and Puerto Rico—the people are fantastic people. I grew up in New York, so I know many people from Puerto Rico. I know many Puerto Ricans. And these are great people, and we have to help them. The island is devastated."[267]
Mayor Cruz criticized the federal response on September 29 during a news conference. "We are dying and you are killing us with the inefficiency", she said.[268] Trump responded by criticizing her for "poor leadership", and tweeted that the mayor and "others in Puerto Rico ... want everything to be done for them."[268]
Frustrated with the federal government's "slow and inadequate response", relief group Oxfam announced on October 2 that it planned to get involved in the humanitarian aid effort, sending a team to "assess a targeted and effective response" and support its local partners' on-the-ground efforts.[269] The organization released a statement, saying in part: "While the US government is engaged in relief efforts, it has failed to address the most urgent needs. Oxfam has monitored the response in Puerto Rico closely, and we are outraged at the slow and inadequate response the US Government has mounted," said Oxfam America's president Abby Maxman. "Oxfam rarely responds to humanitarian emergencies in the US and other wealthy countries, but as the situation in Puerto Rico worsens and the federal government's response continues to falter, we have decided to step in. The US has more than enough resources to mobilize an emergency response, but has failed to do so in a swift and robust manner."[270] In an update on October19, the agency called the situation in Puerto Rico "unacceptable" and called for "a more robust and efficient response from the US government".[271]
A rally for victims of the hurricane and Puerto Rico's status in general, in Long Beach, California, on October3
On October 3, 2017, President Trump visited Puerto Rico. He compared the damage from Hurricane Maria to that of Hurricane Katrina, saying: "If you looked—every death is a horror, but if you look at a real catastrophe like Katrina, and you look at the tremendous hundreds and hundreds and hundreds of people that died, and you look at what happened here with really a storm that was just totally overbearing, nobody has seen anything like this ... What is your death count as of this morning, 17?".[272] Trump's remarks were widely criticized for implying that Hurricane Maria was not a "real catastrophe".[273][274] While in Puerto Rico, Trump also distributed canned goods and paper towels to crowds gathered at a relief shelter[275] and told the residents of the devastated island "I hate to tell you, Puerto Rico, but you've thrown our budget a little out of whack, because we've spent a lot of money on Puerto Rico, and that's fine. We saved a lot of lives."[276]
On October 12, Trump tweeted, "We cannot keep FEMA, the Military & the First Responders, who have been amazing (under the most difficult circumstances) in P.R. forever!",[277] prompting further criticism from lawmakers in both parties;[278] Mayor Cruz replied, "You are incapable of empathy and frankly simply cannot get the job done."[187] In response to a request for clarification on the tweet from Governor Rosselló, John F. Kelly assured that no resources were being pulled and replied: "Our country will stand with those American citizens in Puerto Rico until the job is done".[279]
After visiting Puerto Rico about two months after the hurricane, Refugees International issued a report that severely criticized the slow response of the federal authorities, noted poor coordination and logistics, and indicated the island was still in an emergency mode and in need of more help.[193]Politico compared the federal response to Hurricane Maria in Puerto Rico to that for Hurricane Harvey, which had hit the greater Houston area of Texas a month earlier. Though Maria caused catastrophic damage, the response was slower in quantitative terms.[268]
A Harvard Humanitarian Initiative analysis of the military deployment in March 2018 said the military mission in Puerto Rico after hurricane was better than critics say but suffered flaws. It concluded that the U.S. military itself performed as well in Puerto Rico as it does in its international relief missions, and that coordination had been greatly improved since Katrina, but that real shortcomings exist in planning for disasters.[280][281]
After the official death toll was updated to the estimated 2,975 on August 28, 2018, President Donald Trump stated that he still believed the federal government did a "fantastic job" in its hurricane response.[282] and less than a month later Trump described the federal response to Hurricane Maria as "an incredible, unsung success ... the best job we did was Puerto Rico [compared to hurricanes in Texas and Florida] but nobody would understand that". These remarks received condemnation from Carmen Yulín Cruz and other figures, who cited the near 3,000 death toll as not showing a success.[258]
A 2021 Inspector General investigation found that the Trump administration erected bureaucratic hurdles which stalled approximately $20billion in hurricane relief for Puerto Rico.The Washington Post reported that President Donald Trump instructed officials to closely monitor Puerto Rico's disaster relief because he believed the island's government was corrupt. They also reported that he told his staff that he did not want a single dollar of relief funding to go Puerto Rico, instead pressing for the money to go to Florida and Texas.[283] The Trump Administration subsequently obstructed the efforts of the Department of Housing and Urban Development's Inspector General to investigate the delays in federal aid.[283]
Comparison of lights at night in Puerto Rico before (top) and after (bottom) Hurricane Maria
Soon after the hurricane struck, Whitefish Energy, a small Montana-based company with only two full-time employees, was awarded a $300million contract by PREPA, Puerto Rico's state-run power company, to repair Puerto Rico's power grid, a move considered by many to be highly unusual for several reasons.[284] The company contracted more than 300 personnel, most of them subcontractors, and sent them to the island to carry out work. PREPA cited Whitefish's comparatively small upfront cost of $3.7million for mobilization as one of the main reasons for contracting them over larger companies. PREPA Executive Director Ricardo Ramos stated: "Whitefish was the only company—it was the first that could be mobilized to Puerto Rico. It did not ask us to be paid soon or a guarantee to pay".[285] No requests for assistance had been made to the American Public Power Association by October 24.[285] The decision to hire such a tiny company was considered highly unusual by many, such as former Energy Department official Susan Tierney, who stated: "The fact that there are so many utilities with experience in this and a huge track record of helping each other out, it is at least odd why [the utility] would go to Whitefish".[284] Several representatives, both Democrats and Republicans, also voiced their concern over the choice to contract Whitefish instead of other companies.[285] As the company was based in Whitefish, Montana, the hometown of US Interior Secretary Ryan Zinke, and one of Zinke's sons had once done a summer internship at Whitefish, Zinke knew Whitefish's CEO personally. These facts led to accusations of privatization and cronyism, though Zinke dismissed these claims and stated that he had no role in securing the contract.[284]
In a press release on October 27, FEMA stated it did not approve of PREPA's contract with Whitefish and cited "significant concerns".[286] Governor Rosselló subsequently ordered an audit of the contract's budget. DHS Inspector General John Roth led the FEMA audit while Governor Rosselló called for a second review by Puerto Rico's Office of Management and Budget.[287] The governor then demanded that the contract be canceled; this was executed on October 29.[288]
On April 18, 2018 (Wednesday), The Associated Press reported that the entire island experienced a blackout. On April 19, 2018 (Thursday), Puerto Rico's power company said that it had restored electricity to all customers affected by an island-wide blackout that was caused by an excavator hitting a transmission line, but tens of thousands of families still remained without normal service seven months after Hurricanes Maria and Irma.[289]
San Juan Mayor Carmen Yulín Cruz said one week before the blackout that about 700,000 Americans in Puerto Rico did not have power after a line repaired by Montana contracting firm Whitefish Energy had failed. Puerto Rico's electric grid has suffered in the months since Hurricane Maria struck the island. The territory announced earlier in 2018 that it would privatize its power system over its "deficient service".[290]
Cruiseline French America Line claimed to be working with Whitefish Energy, and that their boat the "Louisiane" would serve as "headquarters for relief services" after Hurricane Maria.[291] Further investigation revealed that the boat had been docked in New Orleans since 2016. French America Line has been accused of scamming customers without delivering on services, and some have alleged the company used proposed "hurricane relief services" as a coverup.[291]
Because of the extensive damage and loss of life the hurricane caused along its path, especially in Dominica, Saint Croix, and Puerto Rico, the World Meteorological Organization retired the name Maria from its rotating name lists in April 2018, and it will never again be used to name an Atlantic tropical cyclone. It was replaced with Margot for the 2023 Atlantic hurricane season.[292]
1928 Okeechobee hurricane – A hurricane that made landfall on Puerto Rico at Category 5 intensity; the death toll on the island was much lower
1932 San Ciprian hurricane – another hurricane to make landfall on Puerto Rico at Category 4 strength or higher
Hurricane David in 1979 – one of the deadliest tropical cyclones to hit Dominica
Hurricane Hugo in 1989 – the last Category 4 hurricane to strike Saint Croix
Hurricane Luis in 1995 – brought severe damage to several islands of the Lesser Antilles
Hurricane Marilyn in 1995 – affected Dominica and Guadeloupe and brought severe damage to the U.S. Virgin Islands just a few days after Luis
Hurricane Hortense in 1996 – affected Puerto Rico and caused widespread flooding across the island
Hurricane Georges in 1998 – most recent major hurricane to strike Puerto Rico before Maria
Hurricane Jeanne in 2004 – a Category 3 hurricane that devastated and killed the same number of people in Haiti
Tropical Storm Erika in 2015 – devastated the island of Dominica with severe flooding
Hurricane Irma in 2017 – Category 5 major hurricane that affected many of the same areas weeks before Hurricane Maria.
Hurricane Jose in 2017 – major hurricane that passed dangerously close to some of the same areas that had just been affected by Hurricane Irma and were further affected by Maria.
Hurricane Fiona in 2022 – a Category 4 hurricane with a similar track; affected Puerto Rico five years later and brought widespread flooding and island-wide total power outage
Hurricane Hugo was a powerful tropical cyclone that inflicted widespread destruction across the northeastern Caribbean and the Southeastern United States in September 1989. The eleventh tropical cyclone, eighth named storm, sixth hurricane, and second major hurricane of the 1989 Atlantic hurricane season, Hugo arose from a cluster of thunderstorms near Cape Verde on September 10, 1989. This cluster coalesced into a tropical depression and strengthened into Tropical Storm Hugo as it tracked west across the Atlantic Ocean for several days. On September 13, Hugo became a hurricane and continued to intensify through September 15 when its sustained winds peaked at 160 mph (255 km/h), making it a Category 5 hurricane on the Saffir–Simpson scale. Between September 17 and 21, Hugo made landfall on Guadeloupe, Saint Croix, Puerto Rico, and lastly South Carolina, with major hurricane strength winds. The storm weakened inland and accelerated north over the Eastern United States, transitioning into an extratropical cyclone on September 23 before it was last noted in the far northern Atlantic on September 25.
Hurricane Lenny was the strongest November Atlantic hurricane since the 1932 Cuba hurricane. It was the twelfth tropical storm, eighth hurricane, and record-breaking fifth Category 4 hurricane in the 1999 Atlantic hurricane season. Lenny formed on November 13 in the western Caribbean Sea at around 18:00 UTC and went on to form and maintain an unusual and unprecedented easterly track for its entire duration, which gave it the common nickname, "Wrong Way Lenny". It attained hurricane status south of Jamaica on November 15 and passed south of Hispaniola and Puerto Rico over the next few days. Lenny rapidly intensified over the northeastern Caribbean on November 17, attaining peak winds of 155 mph (249 km/h) about 21 mi (34 km) south of Saint Croix in the United States Virgin Islands. It gradually weakened while moving through the Leeward Islands, eventually dissipating on November 23 over the open Atlantic Ocean.
Hurricane Georges was a powerful and long-lived tropical cyclone which caused severe destruction as it traversed the Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico in September 1998, making seven landfalls along its path. Georges was the seventh tropical storm, fourth hurricane, and second major hurricane of the 1998 Atlantic hurricane season. It became the most destructive storm of the season, the costliest Atlantic hurricane since Hurricane Andrew in 1992 and remained the costliest until Hurricane Charley in 2004, and the deadliest since Hurricane Gordon in 1994. Georges killed 615 people, mainly on the island of Hispaniola, caused extensive damage resulting in just under $10 billion in damages and leaving nearly 500,000 people homeless in St. Kitts and Nevis, Puerto Rico, Hispaniola and Cuba.
Hurricane Frederic, known in Latin America as Federico, was an intense and damaging tropical cyclone that carved a path of destruction from the Lesser Antilles to Quebec, in particular devastating areas of the United States Gulf Coast. Though only five were killed directly, the US$1.77 billion in damage accrued by Frederic made it the Atlantic basin's costliest tropical cyclone on record at the time. Prior to its final landfall, the threat that Frederic imposed on areas of the U.S. Gulf Coast triggered a mass exodus from the region larger than any other evacuation in the past. While the storm primarily impacted the U.S. states of Mississippi and Alabama, lesser effects were felt throughout the Greater and Lesser Antilles, as well as inland North America.
Hurricane Jeanne was the deadliest tropical cyclone in the Atlantic basin since Mitch in 1998, and the deadliest tropical cyclone worldwide in 2004. It was the tenth named storm, the seventh hurricane, and the fifth major hurricane of the season, as well as the third hurricane and fourth named storm of the season to make landfall in Florida. After wreaking havoc on Hispaniola, Jeanne struggled to reorganize, eventually strengthening and performing a complete loop over the open Atlantic. It headed westwards, strengthening into a Category 3 hurricane and passing over the islands of Great Abaco and Grand Bahama in the Bahamas on September 25. Jeanne made landfall later in the day in Florida just two miles from where Hurricane Frances had struck a mere three weeks earlier.
Hurricane Marilyn was the most powerful hurricane to strike the Virgin Islands since Hurricane Hugo of 1989, and the third such tropical cyclone in roughly a two-week time span to strike or impact the Leeward Islands, the others being Hurricane Iris and the much more powerful and destructive Hurricane Luis. The thirteenth named storm, seventh hurricane and third major hurricane of the extremely active 1995 Atlantic hurricane season, Marilyn formed on September 12 as a tropical depression from a tropical wave that moved off the coast of Africa on September 7. After formation, the storm quickly became a tropical storm, and steadily intensified into a hurricane by the time it struck the Lesser Antilles on September 14 at Category 1 strength. Entering the northeastern Caribbean Sea, rapid intensification ensued and it peaked on September 16 north of Puerto Rico as a Category 3 hurricane shortly after it had impacted the U.S. Virgin Islands. A Hurricane Hunter reconnaissance flight reported hail, which is unusual for tropical cyclones. After heading north past Bermuda, Marilyn weakened and became extratropical on September 22. The remnant circulation wandered the Atlantic Ocean from September 23 – October 1, just south of Nova Scotia.
Hurricane David was a devastating Atlantic hurricane which caused massive loss of life in the Dominican Republic in August 1979, and was the most intense hurricane to make landfall in the country in recorded history. A long-lived Cape Verde hurricane, David was the fourth named storm, second hurricane, and first major hurricane of the 1979 Atlantic hurricane season.
The Okeechobee hurricane of 1928, also known as the San Felipe Segundo hurricane, was one of the deadliest hurricanes in the recorded history of the North Atlantic basin, and the fourth deadliest hurricane in the United States, only behind the 1900 Galveston hurricane, 1899 San Ciriaco hurricane, and Hurricane Maria. The hurricane killed an estimated 2,500 people in the United States; most of the fatalities occurred in the state of Florida, particularly in Lake Okeechobee. It was the fourth tropical cyclone, third hurricane, the only major hurricane of the 1928 Atlantic hurricane season, and remains the deadliest disaster in Florida’s history to date. It developed off the west coast of Africa on September 6 as a tropical depression, but it strengthened into a tropical storm later that day, shortly before passing south of the Cape Verde islands. Further intensification was slow and halted late on September 7. About 48 hours later, the storm strengthened and became a Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale. Still moving westward, the system reached Category 4 intensity before striking Guadeloupe on September 12, where it brought great destruction and resulted in 1,200 deaths. The islands of Martinique, Montserrat, and Nevis also reported damage and fatalities, but not nearly as severe as in Guadeloupe.
Tropical Storm Debby was a weak but costly tropical cyclone that affected the Lesser Antilles in September 1994. It was the fourth named tropical storm of the 1994 Atlantic hurricane season; it developed on September 9 east of Barbados. Debby made landfall on Saint Lucia early on September 10, producing heavy rainfall and tropical storm-force wind gusts. The rains caused flooding and landslides, damaging about half of the island's banana plantations. Several villages were isolated after roads and bridges were damaged. Damage totaled about $103 million (1994 USD). On nearby Dominica, Debby damaged crops and fisheries.
The effects of Hurricane Georges in Puerto Rico included $2 billion in damages and five fatalities. Hurricane Georges was the first hurricane to cross the entire island since the San Ciprian Hurricane in 1932. Georges formed on September 15 as Tropical Depression Seven off the African coast. Georges strengthened into a Category 4-hurricane on September 19 as it made landfall in the Lesser Antilles. Georges made landfall on the island on September 21 as a Category 3-hurricane. Georges caused $3 billion in damage to the island.
Hurricane Omar was a powerful tropical cyclone that took an unusual southwest to northeast track through the eastern Caribbean Sea during mid-October 2008. Forming out of a tropical disturbance on October 13, Omar initially moved slowly in the eastern Caribbean Sea. By October 15, Omar began to quickly intensify as deep convection developed around the center of circulation. Later that day, an eye developed and the storm began to accelerate to the northeast. Early on October 16, Omar reached its peak intensity with maximum winds of 130 mph (210 km/h) and a barometric pressure of 958 mbar. Shortly after, the hurricane rapidly weakened to Category 1 intensity. After slightly re-strengthening the next day, Omar weakened to a tropical storm before degenerating into a non-convective low pressure area. The remnants of Omar persisted until October 21, at which time they dissipated to the west of the Azores.
The 2017 Atlantic hurricane season was a devastating and extremely active Atlantic hurricane season that became the costliest on record, with a damage total of at least $294.92 billion (USD). The season featured 17 named storms, 10 hurricanes, and 6 major hurricanes. Most of the season's damage was due to hurricanes Harvey, Irma, and Maria. Another notable hurricane, Nate, was the worst natural disaster in Costa Rican history. These four storm names were retired following the season due to the number of deaths and amount of damage they caused. Collectively, the tropical cyclones were responsible for at least 3,364 deaths. The season also had the highest accumulated cyclone energy (ACE) since 2005 with an approximate index of 224 units, with a record three hurricanes each generating an ACE of over 40: Irma, Jose, and Maria. This season featured two Category 5 hurricanes, and the only season other than 2007 with two hurricanes making landfall at that intensity. The season's ten hurricanes occurred one after the other, the greatest number of consecutive hurricanes in the satellite era, and tied for the highest number of consecutive hurricanes ever observed in the Atlantic basin.
Tropical Storm Erika was one of the deadliest and most destructive natural disasters in Dominica since Hurricane David in 1979. The fifth named storm of the 2015 Atlantic hurricane season, Erika developed from a westward-moving tropical wave while well east of the Lesser Antilles. Hostile conditions, including dry air and wind shear, inhibited significant development, and Erika failed to acquire sustained winds beyond 50 mph (80 km/h). Contrary to predictions of a northwesterly recurvature, the cyclone persisted on a westerly course and passed through the Leeward Islands and emerged over the Caribbean Sea on August 27. Erika succumbed to adverse conditions the following day, dissipating as a tropical cyclone near the Dominican Republic. The remnant system persisted for several more days, moving into the northeastern Gulf of Mexico, before dissipating over Georgia on September 3.
Hurricane Irma was an extremely powerful and devastating tropical cyclone that was the first Category 5 hurricane to strike the Leeward Islands on record, followed by Maria two weeks later. At the time, it was considered the most powerful hurricane on record in the open Atlantic region, outside of the Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico, until it was surpassed by Hurricane Dorian two years later. It was also the third-strongest Atlantic hurricane at landfall ever recorded, just behind the 1935 Labor Day Hurricane and Dorian. The ninth named storm, fourth hurricane, second major hurricane, and first Category 5 hurricane of the extremely active 2017 Atlantic hurricane season, Irma caused widespread and catastrophic damage throughout its long lifetime, particularly in the northeastern Caribbean and the Florida Keys. It was also the most intense hurricane to strike the continental United States since Katrina in 2005, the first major hurricane to make landfall in Florida since Wilma in the same year, and the first Category 4 hurricane to strike the state since Charley in 2004. The word Irmageddon was coined soon after the hurricane to describe the damage caused by the hurricane.
Between September 19–21, 2017, Hurricane Maria devastated the entire island of Puerto Rico and caused a major humanitarian crisis. Originally as a powerful Category 5 hurricane, Maria was the strongest storm to impact the island in nearly 90 years. Maria made landfall on Puerto Rico on September 20 as a high-end Category 4 storm, bringing a large storm surge, very heavy rains, and wind gusts well above 100 mph (160 km/h). It flattened neighborhoods, crippled the island's power grid, and caused an estimated 2,982 fatalities and US$90 billion in damage.
Hurricane Maria struck Puerto Rico as a high-end Category 4 hurricane on September 20, 2017, resulting in the island's most severe natural disaster in modern history. The entire island suffered devastating effects with the entire population losing access to electricity, the majority losing access to clean water, tens of thousands of homes destroyed, and road infrastructure left crippled. A series of cascading infrastructure failures compounded the direct effects of the hurricane. Lack of aid, electricity, water, and access to medical care endangered many people; elderly and poor residents were most impacted.
Hurricane Beryl was a fast-moving and long-lived tropical cyclone. The second named storm and first hurricane of the 2018 Atlantic hurricane season, Beryl formed in the Main Development Region from a vigorous tropical wave that moved off the west coast of Africa on July 1. The wave quickly organized into a tropical depression over the central Atlantic Ocean on July 4. Rapid intensification took place and the depression quickly became a tropical storm at 00:00 UTC the next day. Just less than 15 hours later, on July 6, Beryl strengthened into the first hurricane of the season, reaching its peak intensity on July 6. Increasingly unfavorable conditions caused a rapid deterioration of the cyclone shortly after its peak, with Beryl falling to tropical storm status on the next day, as it began to accelerate towards the Caribbean. Late on July 8, it degenerated into a tropical wave shortly before reaching the Lesser Antilles. The remnants were monitored for several days, although they failed to organize significantly until July 14, when it regenerated into a subtropical storm, six days after it lost tropical characteristics. However, the newly reformed storm quickly lost convection, and it degenerated into a remnant low early on July 16, while situated over the Gulf Stream. Beryl subsequently dissipated on the next day.
Hurricane Dorian caused relatively minor damage across the eastern Caribbean in late August 2019. Originating from a westward moving tropical wave, Dorian organized into a tropical cyclone on August 24 and reached the Lesser Antilles on August 26 as a tropical storm. Turning northwest, the system unexpectedly intensified to a hurricane as it struck the Virgin Islands on August 27. Antecedent to the storm's arrival, local governments across the archipelago issued tropical cyclone warnings and watches, readied public shelters, closed airports, and placed emergency crews on standby. Many of the threatened islands were still reeling from the devastation wrought by Hurricane Irma and Hurricane Maria in September 2017 and fears arose over embattled power grids. In the areas first affected, impacts were limited to gusty winds and modest rainfall. Effects were greater in the Virgin Islands where wind gusts reached 111 mph (179 km/h); however, damage was light. Multiple landslides occurred across the islands and Puerto Rico with only a handful of structures suffering damage. One person died in Puerto Rico while preparing for the storm.
Hurricane Fiona was a large, powerful, and destructive tropical cyclone which was the costliest and most intense tropical or post-tropical cyclone to hit Canada on record. It was the sixth named storm, third hurricane and first major hurricane of the 2022 Atlantic hurricane season.
↑ Richard J. Pasch; Andrew B. Penny; Robbie Berg (April 5, 2018). Tropical Cyclone Report: Hurricane Maria(PDF) (Report). Miami, Florida: National Hurricane Center. Archived(PDF) from the original on April 20, 2018. Retrieved April 10, 2018.
↑ Brown, Daniel; Blake, Eric (September 18, 2017). Hurricane Maria Tropical Cyclone Update (Report). National Hurricane Center. Archived from the original on September 20, 2017. Retrieved September 20, 2017.
1 2 Brown, Daniel; Blake, Eric (September 18, 2017). Hurricane Maria Tropical Cyclone Update (Report). National Hurricane Center. Archived from the original on September 19, 2017. Retrieved September 20, 2017.
↑ Berg, Robbie (September 20, 2017). Hurricane Maria Discussion Number 18 (Report). National Hurricane Center. Archived from the original on September 21, 2017. Retrieved September 20, 2017.
↑ Avila, Lixion (September 22, 2017). Hurricane Maria Discussion Number 24 (Report). National Hurricane Center. Archived from the original on September 26, 2017. Retrieved September 25, 2017.
↑ Beven, John (September 25, 2017). Hurricane Maria Discussion Number 37 (Report). National Hurricane Center. Archived from the original on September 26, 2017. Retrieved September 25, 2017.
↑ Hurricane Maria: Situation Report #3(PDF) (Report). Caribbean Disaster Emergency Management Agency. September 24, 2017. Archived(PDF) from the original on September 27, 2017. Retrieved September 27, 2017.
↑ Sánchez Fournier, José A. (October 20, 2017). "La cifra de personas desaparecidas tras María baja a 60" (in Spanish). El Nuevo Día. Archived from the original on October 22, 2017. Retrieved October 22, 2017. La Policía anuncia que ya solo quedan sin esclarecer 60 de los 212 casos de personas desaparecidas reportadas en la Isla desde el paso del huracán
1 2 3 4 5 6 Dominica: Hurricane Maria(PDF) (Information Bulletin). International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies. September 25, 2017. Archived(PDF) from the original on September 27, 2017. Retrieved September 26, 2017.
↑ Hurricane Maria: Situation Report #1(PDF) (Report). Caribbean Disaster Emergency Management Agency. September 20, 2017. Archived(PDF) from the original on September 27, 2017. Retrieved September 27, 2017.
↑ van den Burg, Matthijs P.; Brisbane, Jeanelle L. K.; Knapp, Charles R. (October 14, 2019). "Post-hurricane relief facilitates invasion and establishment of two invasive alien vertebrate species in the Commonwealth of Dominica, West Indies". Biological Invasions. 22 (2): 195–203. doi:10.1007/s10530-019-02107-5. eISSN1573-1464. ISSN1387-3547. S2CID204460134.
↑ National Weather Service, SFO San Juan (November 22, 2017). "Major Hurricane Maria". National Weather Service. Archived from the original on June 8, 2018.
↑ Santiago, Gilberto Rivera (August 20, 2018). Siguiendo La Trayectoria Del Huracán María Sobre Puerto Rico. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform. ISBN9781725930957.
1 2 "Issue Brief". The Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation. September 19, 2018. Archived from the original on February 13, 2020. Retrieved April 2, 2020.
↑ Nelson Denis (September 25, 2017). "The Law Strangling Puerto Rico". The New York Times. Archived from the original on September 26, 2017. Retrieved September 26, 2017.
Santiago, Gilberto Rivera (2018), Siguiendo la Trayectoria del Huracán María Sobre Puerto Rico: Un evento sin precedentes de cómo un Puerto Rico se levanta (in Spanish), n/a: n/a, ISBN9781725930957, OCLC1090803877 (426 pages)
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