Tropical Storm Erika

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Map key
Saffir–Simpson scale
  Tropical depression (≤38 mph, ≤62 km/h)
  Tropical storm (39–73 mph, 63–118 km/h)
  Category 1 (74–95 mph, 119–153 km/h)
  Category 2 (96–110 mph, 154–177 km/h)
  Category 3 (111–129 mph, 178–208 km/h)
  Category 4 (130–156 mph, 209–251 km/h)
  Category 5 (≥157 mph, ≥252 km/h)
  Unknown
Storm type
Disc Plain black.svg Tropical cyclone
Solid black.svg Subtropical cyclone
ArrowUp.svg Extratropical cyclone, remnant low, tropical disturbance, or monsoon depression

On August 20, 2015, the National Hurricane Center (NHC) began monitoring a tropical wave over western Africa, near the Atlantic shore. [1] The disorganized system emerged over the Atlantic Ocean several hundred miles southeast of the Cape Verde Islands the following day. [2] [3] Moving quickly west, the system bypassed the Cape Verde Islands to the south on August 22, [4] but remained largely disorganized. A sharp trough developed within expanding deep convection on August 23, though a well-defined circulation did not consolidate. [2] Organization of the low improved throughout the day as environmental conditions favored tropical cyclogenesis. [5] The trough acquired gale-force winds the following day and finally developed a closed circulation by 18:00  UTC. The formation of a closed low marked the transition into a tropical cyclone; accordingly, the system was classified as Tropical Storm Erika, the fifth named storm of the annual hurricane season. Upon its designation, Erika was situated roughly 1,035 mi (1,665 km) east of the Lesser Antilles. [2] The storm maintained a brisk westward trajectory, steered by a subtropical ridge to the north. [2] [6]

At the time of Erika's classification, forecast models diverged significantly on the potential future of the storm. Statistical guidance and the HWRF depicted a hurricane while the ECMWF and GFS showed a weaker system due to increasing wind shear. The models that intensified the storm indicated a more northerly track while those that kept it weaker had the system continuing along a westward course. Accordingly, the NHC noted low confidence in their five-day forecast for Erika. [6] This uncertainty ultimately reflected in above-average forecast errors when compared to all tropical cyclones, but roughly average for weak, poorly organized systems. [7] Throughout August 25 and into early August 26, the convective organization of Erika fluctuated due to wind shear and entrainment of dry air, periodically leaving the center of circulation devoid of convection. [8] Early on August 27, Erika managed to intensify slightly, attaining its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 50 mph (80 km/h) and a barometric pressure of 1,001 mbar (29.6 inHg). [2] Around 09:00 UTC, the disorganized center of Erika passed near the northern tip of Guadeloupe, before emerging over the eastern Caribbean Sea. [2]

Official forecast positions (top left) and various forecast models for Erika versus its best track positions (black lines). Note the consistent northerly bias present in all outputs. Tropical Storm Erika 2015 forecast errors.png
Official forecast positions (top left) and various forecast models for Erika versus its best track positions (black lines). Note the consistent northerly bias present in all outputs.

Convection remained poorly-organized and mostly confined to eastern portions of the cyclone, as it traversed the eastern Caribbean Sea. [9] Multiple circulation centers were noted during the overnight of August 27–28, all rotating around a broad general center. One such center moved over St. Croix and produced gale-force gusts. Environmental conditions ahead of the storm became increasingly hostile, and forecasters at the NHC continued to note unusually high uncertainty in their forecasts. [10] Further structural degradation ensued on August 28 as Erika approached the Dominican Republic. Based on data from Hurricane Hunters, Erika degenerated into a broad area of low pressure—no longer meeting the definition of a tropical cyclone—shortly after 12:00 UTC, near the southeastern coast of the Dominican Republic. [2] Operationally, the NHC maintained advisories on Erika until 13:30 UTC on August 29. [11] It was also noted during those advisories that the center was completely devoid of convection, and whatever convection remained was reduced to the eastern half of the system. [12]

Around 21:00 UTC on August 28, the remnants of Erika made landfall along the southeastern coast of the Dominican Republic. [13] The disheveled system emerged over the Windward Passage early on August 29. [12] Thereafter, the system skirted the northern coast of Cuba and entered the Gulf of Mexico on August 31. Turning northward, the disturbance eventually crossed northern Florida on September 2, before dissipating over Georgia on the following day. [2]

Preparations

The NHC's forecast track for Tropical Storm Erika at 5:00 a.m. EDT (09:00 UTC) on August 28, just before its dissipation as a tropical cyclone, depicting the storm traversing the Dominican Republic, brushing the Bahamas, and moving across the entirety of the Florida Peninsula. Tropical Storm Erika 2015 forecast advisory 14.GIF
The NHC's forecast track for Tropical Storm Erika at 5:00 a.m. EDT (09:00 UTC) on August 28, just before its dissipation as a tropical cyclone, depicting the storm traversing the Dominican Republic, brushing the Bahamas, and moving across the entirety of the Florida Peninsula.

Caribbean

Various local governments issued tropical storm watches and warnings for their respective nations throughout the duration of Erika. Watches and warnings covered the Lesser Antilles from Guadeloupe northward, almost the entirety of the Greater Antilles, and the Bahamas. [2] The Red Cross opened four shelters to the public across the United States Virgin Islands. [14] The local Health Department also opened special needs shelters on St. Croix and St. Thomas. All non-essential government personnel were given administrative leave on August 27. Owing to rough seas, local ports temporarily closed. Although airports remained open, several airlines cancelled flights. [15] A territory-wide curfew was imposed until the afternoon of August 28. [16]

Schools, ports, and beaches were closed across the Dominican Republic. [17] The Army of the Dominican Republic deployed 275 soldiers and alongside the nation's Air Force, assisted with the evacuation of residents. The Navy was placed on standby for potential search and rescue operations. [18] Officials in Haiti suspended air service, banned highway travel between departments, and ordered small watercraft to remain at port. [19] Evacuation shelters were opened across all departments and 254 prisoners were relocated from Gonaïves to three other facilities. [20]

Florida

On August 28, Florida Governor Rick Scott declared a state of emergency. [21] Despite the storm dissipating shortly thereafter, Scott kept the emergency declaration in place and stated, "This storm has been completely unpredictable the whole time...we will still get a lot of rain and a lot of flooding." [22] Thirty members of the Florida National Guard were positioned while another 8,000 were placed on standby. [22] A collective 17 flights were cancelled at Miami International Airport and Fort Lauderdale–Hollywood International Airport on August 28. [23] Schools in Hendry County preemptively closed for August 31, [22] with officials citing flooding concerns. [24] The National Park Service shut down Biscayne National Park on August 28, [25] and Dry Tortugas National Park and Everglades National Park on August 29. [26] [27] Sandbags were distributed to residents in Doral, Hallandale Beach, Hollywood, and Sweetwater. [28] The last hurricane to impact the state was Hurricane Wilma in 2005. Since that time, the state's population grew by 2 million with many presumed to have never experienced a hurricane before. [22] Some newer residents remained apathetic over the storm, dismissing it as "another excuse to skip work or school or to party." [29]

Impact

Tropical Storm Erika
Erika 2015-08-27 1725Z.jpg
Tropical Storm Erika over the Leeward Islands on August 27
Impact by country or region
County/RegionDeathsDamage (USD)Ref.
DirectIndirect
Dominica 300$482.8 million [30] [31]
Dominican Republic 00$8.91 million [32]
Haiti 14— [17] [33]
United States 00$19.4 million [nb 2] [34] [35]
Total314$511.38 million

Caribbean

In Guadeloupe, rain totals reached 100 mm (3.9 in) in Basse-Terre while gusts peaked at 100 km/h (62 mph) on La Désirade. Some landslides and flooding were reported, with roads in Basse-Terre temporarily closed. Électricité de France reported that 1,600 customers lost power during the storm. [36] Rough seas in Martinique grounded boats. [37] Landslides and felled trees blocked several roadways across the island. [38] Elsewhere in the Lesser Antilles, effects from Erika were negligible. [39]

Infrared satellite loop of Erika over the Lesser Antilles on August 27 Erika 20150827 1445-2145 UTC.gif
Infrared satellite loop of Erika over the Lesser Antilles on August 27

The outer bands of Erika brought much needed rain to drought-stricken Puerto Rico; [16] a station in Adjuntas recorded 4.45 in (113 mm) of rain. [2] Tropical storm-force wind gusts, peaking at 59 mph (95 km/h) in Maricao, [2] caused substantial disruption to the power grid, leaving approximately 250,000 people without electricity. [40] Thirty-six homes sustained roof damage across interior locations of the territory and agriculture sustained US$17.37 million in damage. [34]

A weather station in Barahona, Dominican Republic, measured 24.26 in (616 mm) of rain during Erika's passage, including 8.8 in (220 mm) in a single hour. Surrounding areas reported significantly less rain, however. [41] Throughout the country, 823 homes suffered damage and 7,345 people were displaced. Erika blocked over 400 roads and left many power outages. [42] Winds gusts of 50 mph (80 km/h) in Azua caused at least RD$400 million (US$8.91 million) in damage to the banana crop. [32] Heavy rainfall also impacted Haiti, which was still recovering from a catastrophic earthquake in 2010; an estimated 60,000 people remained in emergency housing. [17] Four persons died and eleven others were hospitalized in Léogâne, when a truck crashed into a bus on rain-slicked roads and exploded. [33] A fifth death occurred during a landslide in Port-au-Prince. Two people in the area were injured after a house collapsed. [17]

The remnants of Erika later brought much needed rains to Cuba, which was suffering from its worst drought since 1901. [17]

Southeastern United States

Rainfall from the remnants of Erika across the Southeastern United States Tropical Storm Erika 2015 rainfall graphic.gif
Rainfall from the remnants of Erika across the Southeastern United States

Later, Erika's remnants dropped locally heavy rainfall across Florida, particularly in the Miami Metropolitan Area. A station northwest of Sweetwater observed 9 in (230 mm) of rain. [43] Minor flash flooding left streets in Wynwood impassable. [44] Farther north in Flagler County, scattered thunderstorms produced isolated instances of heavy rain; 2.2 in (56 mm) fell within one hour in Palm Coast. [45] In the greater Jacksonville area, lightning struck the Sally B. Mathis Elementary School, resulting in damage to the air conditioning unit and evacuation of students. [46] In neighboring Georgia, moisture from Erika's remnants fueled scattered severe thunderstorms. Large hail caused US$2.3 million in damage near Woodstock. [35] Strong winds gusting up to 60 mph (97 km/h) accompanied these storms, downing trees and power lines in Cherokee, Polk, and Troup counties. [47] [48] [49] Additional rainfall extended north through the Carolinas. [43]

Effects in Dominica

The rugged terrain of Dominica makes it prone to landslides in heavy rain events. The town of Petite Savanne (pictured), situated on steep cliffs, was rendered uninhabitable after numerous landslides devastated the area. Petite Savanne, Dominica, after Tropical Storm Erika.jpg
The rugged terrain of Dominica makes it prone to landslides in heavy rain events. The town of Petite Savanne (pictured), situated on steep cliffs, was rendered uninhabitable after numerous landslides devastated the area.

Although Erika passed well to the north of Dominica as a weak tropical storm, torrential rain associated with the storm impacted the country. [2] Unusually high precipitable water values of 2.6 in (67 mm) were present over the island as Erika moved through. Orographic influence exacerbated rainfall rates, and this was further compounded with the formation of a temporary mesoscale low over the island as the primary circulation of Erika continued west. [50] More than 8 in (200 mm) of rain fell across the entire island in less than 48 hours, with an island-wide average of 24 in (610 mm). [nb 3] During the period of heaviest rain, average rainfall across the entire island exceeded 3.5 in (90 mm) per hour. Rates along the Macoucherie River reached 11 in (270 mm) per hour. The heaviest rain was concentrated around the nation's tallest mountain, Morne Diablotins, where an estimated 31 to 33 in (800 to 850 mm) fell. Rainfall across Morne Diablotin National Park generally exceeded 24 in (600 mm). A secondary peak accumulation of 26 to 28 in (650 to 700 mm) occurred in the southeastern part of the island around Morne Trois Pitons. [51] Observed accumulations include 17 in (430 mm) at Gleau Gommier, [52] 12.62 in (321 mm) at Canefield Airport, and 8.74 in (222 mm) at Douglas–Charles Airport. [2] With grounds already saturated from nearly two weeks of rain prior to Erika, much of the precipitation did not penetrate the surface; in multiple watersheds, runoff exceeded 60 percent of accumulations. [51]

Catastrophic flash flooding and mudslides ensued across the island, [2] resulting in Dominica's worst natural disaster since Hurricane David in 1979. [53] [54] Across the island's rugged terrain, the mudslides temporarily dammed overflowing rivers creating a buildup of water. These earthen dams subsequently collapsed, leading to amplified flooding downstream. Flow rates in these localized events vastly exceeded values expected by International Commission on Large Dams modeling. A post-storm study of 16 rivers on the island revealed peak discharge values in excess of 1,000 m3/s along 5 rivers, with a maximum of 2,876 m3/s along the Malabuka River. [51]

Nearly 17,000 of the nation's 71,293 people were severely impacted by the storm. [55] A total of 30 people were killed, [2] 20 others were injured, and 574 people were left homeless. [30] [31] More than 890 homes were destroyed or rendered uninhabitable. [56] Infrastructure suffered tremendous damage: 6 percent of bridges and 17 percent of roads were wiped out. Furthermore, half of the nation's bridges and a quarter of its roads were damaged. [57] Total losses amounted to EC$1.3 billion (US$482.8 million), roughly 90 percent of Dominica's gross domestic product. [31] Dominica Prime Minister Roosevelt Skerrit stated in a national announcement on August 28 that, "The visual damage I saw today, I fear, may have set our development process back by 20 years". [19]

Flooding crippled transportation and communication, with eight bridges severely damaged or destroyed, leaving many areas of the island isolated. [31] [58] Boetica and Delices remained cut-off by ground for more than three weeks. [59] More than 12 major rivers topped their banks. [60] Approximately 45 percent of residents lost electricity, [58] and almost the entirety of the water supply network was damaged. [31] Additionally, 50 percent of telephone service was lost. [58] Both Canefield and Douglas–Charles airports were flooded, with water rising above a small airplane at the latter. [61] Douglas–Charles Airport sustained more than EC$39.5 million (US$14.6 million) in damage and was closed until September 18. [62] [63] The main river running through Roseau, the nation's capital, burst its banks during the overnight of August 26–27, flooding surrounding areas. [64] One person was killed during a mudslide and one building collapsed in the city. [61] [65]

The small community of Petite Savanne was virtually destroyed, with 217 homes leveled and all residents forced to evacuate. [66] [67] Twenty people died or were presumed dead in the village, accounting for two-thirds of the deaths attributed to Erika in Dominica. [2] [68] Residents dug through mud and debris, often with their bare hands, to rescue those trapped and in many cases did so with nearby homes on the verge of collapse. [60] The village was isolated for several days and residents buried victims before help arrived. [69]

Local response

Immediately following Erika's devastating impact in Dominica on August 27, the Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States convened to determine an assessment plan. [70] The Government of Dominica declared nine areas special disaster areas: Petite Savanne, Pichelin, Good Hope, Bath Estate, Dubique, Campbell, Coulibistrie, San Sauveur, and Petite Soufriere. [71] The National Emergency Operations Centre was activated and worked in conjunction with various local agencies to conduct relief missions. Approximately 100 personnel were deployed for various relief measures, including search and rescue. [72] The Dominica Spa Health and Wellness Association worked in conjunction with the Trinidad-based Centre for Human Development to provide psychological support to victims; [73] eight trauma specialists were sent to Dominica. [74]

The psychiatric unit of Princess Margaret Hospital conducted field assessments and provided emotional support to residents. In a report on September 18, they noted that residents in Coulibistrie remained in a state of shock for weeks after Erika, with many struggling to begin the recovery process. [75] The Ministry of Health highlighted concerns over post-storm diseases, particularly from mosquitoes, due to a major increase in the usage of water storage containers. [76] An outbreak of Gastroenteritis ensued in the weeks following Erika, with 153 cases confirmed by September 22. Cases were primarily in Portsmouth, Saint Joseph, and Roseau. [77]

A unique means of supplying food and water the communities of Boetica and Delices, only accessible by air due to a gorge 260 ft (80 m) wide and 200 ft (61 m) deep, was established in the form of a zip-line in late-September. This served as the primary means of aid until a 98 ft (30 m) Bailey bridge was constructed. [78] By April 2016, the cost of infrastructure rehabilitation projects reached EC$7 million (US$3 million). [79] Supplementing reconstruction efforts by China and the United Kingdom, the nation's government allocated a further EC$30 million (US$11 million) to enhancing road safety. [80] The Food and Agriculture Organization allocated EC$300,000 (US$110,000) for farmers in October. [81] Through June 2016, the government provided victims with EC$5–6 million (US$1.8–2.2 million), primarily to cover shelters and food. [82]

International assistance

RFA Lyme Bay provided vital assistance to many isolated communities in early September RFA Lyme Bay MOD 45150928.jpg
RFA Lyme Bay provided vital assistance to many isolated communities in early September

Within 48 hours of the storm, Governments of Canada, France, the United Kingdom, the United States, the European Union, and various intergovernmental organizations under the United Nations—such as the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO), UNICEF, and United Nations Development Programme—pledged aid; Antigua and Barbuda, Barbados, Montserrat, Saint Lucia, and Trinidad and Tobago provided support teams—firefighters, police, search and rescue, and military personnel—and established supply routes with Dominica. [39] The Caribbean Disaster Emergency Management Agency (CDEMA) pledged assistance to Dominica, offering two helicopters with supplies and medics from Trinidad. [16] Support teams from the CDEMA arrived in Dominica on August 28. [39] The Regional Security System deployed 83 personnel whom conducted search and rescue operations and assisted in the evacuation of hundreds of residents. [83] China and the Caribbean Development Bank offered US$300,000 and US$200,000 in aid, respectively, to the nation. [84] [85] China later provided an additional US$200,000 in October. [86] The Government of Venezuela airlifted 2,000 tons of food and supplies to Dominica and pledged to provide a helicopter carrier ship on August 29. [87] Supplies from Venezuela were bolstered to 10 tons by September 1, and the ship PDV Marina was deployed that day with an additional 13 tons worth fuel, machinery, and other supplies. [88]

Further assistance was provided by the Governments of Cuba, Grenada, and St. Kitts and Nevis by August 31, [89] [90] the latter of which donated EC$1 million (US$368,000). [91] The British-flagged RFA Lyme Bay arrived in Dominica on September 2, carrying medical supplies, marines, [66] and a Lynx Mk.8 helicopter. [92] The helicopter flew 25 flights over a period of five days to isolated communities, providing them with 2 tonnes of supplies daily. More than 20 tonnes of water and 5.3 tonnes of food were provided by RFA Lyme Bay. [93] The Governments of the British Virgin Islands and Taiwan each pledged US$100,000 in funds. [94] [95] Digicel and LIME coordinated restoration efforts to the nation's fiber-optic networks. [96] The former requested donations from 32 countries while the latter assisted in establishing supply routes to isolated communities. [97] Digical also partnered with the Dominican Red Cross, paying for transportation so relief teams could access isolated towns. [98]

Brazil provided medical supplies (pictured) in October 2015 to the disaster-struck nation Medical supplies for Dominica from Brazil TS Erika.jpg
Brazil provided medical supplies (pictured) in October 2015 to the disaster-struck nation

The Government of the Cayman Islands donated US$500,000 and requested residents of the territory to donate supplies. [99] Japan's government provided US$100,000-worth of generators, water purifiers, and water tanks through the Japan International Cooperation Agency. [100] Japan later signed a US1.6 million grant for disaster resilience supplies in January 2016. [101] A further TT$5 million (US$784,000) was provided by Trinidad and Tobago. [102] The Government of Guyana provided a shipment of 68 tonnes of rice collected through public and private donations, three times more than targeted. [103] Through its Excess Rainfall Programme, the Caribbean Catastrophe Risk Insurance Facility provided €6.5 million (US$2.4 million) to the Government of Dominica—the maximum payout allowable. [104] Thousands of school supplies, including books and writing utensils, were collected by the Caribbean Community. [105] The Adventist Development and Relief Agency (ADRA), All Hands Volunteers, Convoy of Hope, ChildFund, and the Organization of American States also provided assistance. [106]

The initial response from UNICEF included the distribution of over 600 hygiene kits and 4,000 water purification tablets. [55] Logistical support, namely satellite phones, solar chargers, and laptops, were provided by the International Telecommunication Union. [107] Four tonnes of medical supplies provided by the PAHO arrived on September 9, [108] and the Government of Brazil supplied additional medical items in October. [109] After an initial release of funds on September 3, the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC) launched an emergency appeal on September 10 for approximately US$1 million to assist 12,000 people. [110] The society's relief operation lasted until April 10, 2016, and provided 12,382 people with life-saving assistance. The IFRC's primary goal was to restore access to clean water; more than half a million litres of water was provided during the seven-month operation. In regards to health, psychosocial support was made available to 873 people, roughly half of the original goal. Hygiene awareness and distribution of kits proved successful, with all 1,000 kits supplied to those in need. The Dominican Red Cross mass-promoted the Red Cross First Aid mobile app to 8,000 phones, though only 399 people downloaded it. Cash grants of US$334—by way of Visa debit cards—were provided to 279 families to cover lost property. A total of 1,000 mattresses were provided to survivors and a request for additional beds was made; however, limited funds prevented fulfillment. [111]

In March 2017, the CDEMA approved a €9.6 million (US$10.5 million) plan to address gaps in Dominica's disaster response legislation uncovered during the response to Erika. [112]

Reconstruction

The destruction of Petite Savanne forced the evacuation of 823 people; the village was later deemed uninhabitable and a new town needed to be built elsewhere. [113] Many were temporarily relocated to the Dominica Grammar School in Roseau; however, members of the public looked upon the evacuees with scorn and insulted them for disrupting their daily lives. Parliamentary Representative Kenneth Darroux pleaded with residents to be understanding and patient with those whom were displaced. [114] Plans for a new settlement were established in February 2016, with plans to build 500–1,000 homes. [113] The government provided displaced residents with EC$1,000 per family to handle rent. [115] Similarly, all residents of Dubique were forced to evacuate; they were relocated to temporary homes in Grand Bay provided by Venezuela. [113] Ten two- and three-bedroom homes were provided by the ADRA. Costs for resettlement and reconstruction exceeded EC$91 million (US$14.3 million). [116] Power was restored to all areas of the nation, except for Petite Savanne and Dubique, by September 28. [117] Restoration to the nation's water system was completed in January 2016; however, permanent systems were still to be constructed. [118]

An aerial view of damage inflicted by Hurricane Maria across Roseau in September 2017. Aerial view of part of Roseau, the capital city of Dominica.jpg
An aerial view of damage inflicted by Hurricane Maria across Roseau in September 2017.

French organizations provided €70,000 (US$77,000) for the reconstruction of two schools. [119] Repair of Douglas–Charles airport was deemed a priority, though the first phase of rehabilitation for runways and aprons took more than a year to complete. In addition to repairs, greater flood defense systems were implemented, including dredging, flood walls, and river training. [120] Construction of 25 planned homes by the ADRA began in February 2016, with projected completion in 2017; 50 volunteers were involved in the project. [121] In April 2016, a library built in 1902 was converted into the "Post Erika Reconstruction Center", spearheaded by Baroness Patricia Scotland. [122] Contracts for roadway repairs between St. Joseph and Layou were signed that month. [115] In November 2016, Dominica signed an agreement with the European Union for an €8.9 million (US$9.6 million) rehabilitation project. [123] In a join Dominica–United Kingdom project, a new road from Loubiere to Bagatelle in southeastern Dominica was announced in March 2017. The EC$100 million (US$37 million) plan would ensure the road could handle heavy rain events, with 12–14 culverts and 3 bridges. Furthermore, road edge failure issues were to be addressed. [124]

On September 18–19, 2017, Hurricane Maria struck Dominica as a Category 5 hurricane, the first such storm of that intensity on record in the nation. [125] An estimated 98 percent of the island's structures were damaged or destroyed and agriculture was devastated. [126] The Assessment Capacities Project estimated total losses of EC$3.69 billion (US$1.37 billion), equal to 226 percent of Dominica's 2016 GDP. [127] A total of 65 fatalities have been confirmed across the island, including 34 who are missing and presumed to be dead. [128]

Retirement

Because of the storm's severe effects on Dominica, the name Erika was retired by the World Meteorological Organization in April 2016, becoming only the second Atlantic basin retiree that never attained hurricane status, along with 2001's Allison. The name Erika was replaced with Elsa for the 2021 season. [129] [130] [131]

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ All damage totals are in 2015 values of their respective currency.
  2. ↑ $17.37 million in Puerto Rico plus $2.3 million in the Southeastern United States.
  3. ↑ The majority of rainfall amounts across the island were calculated through analyses of radar data with bias corrections. [51]

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Petite Savanne was a village on the southeast side of Dominica. It had an estimated population of 1,200 in 2015. The region the town was built on features some of Dominica's steepest terrain; the slopes were composed largely of silt and clay.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hurricane Dean</span> Category 5 Atlantic hurricane in 2007

Hurricane Dean was the strongest tropical cyclone of the 2007 Atlantic hurricane season. It was the most intense North Atlantic hurricane since Hurricane Wilma of 2005, tying for ninth overall. Additionally, it made the fourth most intense Atlantic hurricane landfall. A Cape Verde hurricane that formed on August 13, 2007, Dean took a west-northwest path from the eastern Atlantic Ocean through the Saint Lucia Channel and into the Caribbean. It strengthened into a major hurricane, reaching Category 5 status on the Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale before passing just south of Jamaica on August 20. The storm made landfall on the Yucatán Peninsula on August 21 at peak intensity. It crossed the peninsula and emerged into the Bay of Campeche weakened, but still remained a hurricane. It strengthened briefly before making a second landfall near Tecolutla in the Mexican state of Veracruz on August 22. Dean drifted to the northwest, weakening into a remnant low which dissipated uneventfully over the southwestern United States. Dean was the second-most intense tropical cyclone worldwide of 2007 in terms of pressure, only behind Cyclone George in the Australian region, and tied with Felix as the most intense worldwide in terms of 1-minute sustained winds.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Effects of Hurricane Dean in the Lesser Antilles</span>

The effects of Hurricane Dean in the Lesser Antilles were spread over five island countries and included 3 fatalities. Hurricane Dean formed in the Atlantic Ocean west of Cape Verde on August 14, 2007. The National Hurricane Center's first Forecast Advisory on the system anticipated that the Cape Verde-type hurricane would pass into the Caribbean through the Lesser Antilles. The storm moved persistently towards the small island chain, strengthening until it passed through the islands three days later on August 17 as a Category 2 hurricane on the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale. It went on to brush the island of Jamaica and reached Category 5 strength before making landfall on Mexico's Yucatán Peninsula.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Effects of Hurricane Georges in the Lesser Antilles</span>

The effects of Hurricane Georges in the Lesser Antilles were minimal in certain islands and major on others. Georges had formed on September 15, 1998, off the African coast. It had quickly strengthened into a Category 4 hurricane on the Saffir–Simpson scale on September 20 when it struck the Lesser Antilles with 115 mph (185 km/h) winds. The islands affected include Antigua, Barbuda, the British Virgin Islands, the United States Virgin Islands, Montserrat, Guadeloupe, Dominica, St. Maarten. St. Kitts and Nevis were also affected and sustained the most damage at US$484 million.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hurricane Paloma</span> Category 4 Atlantic hurricane in 2008

Hurricane Paloma was a strong late-season Atlantic hurricane that set several records for its intensity and formation. It was the sixteenth tropical storm, eighth hurricane and fifth major hurricane of the 2008 Atlantic hurricane season. Paloma was, at the time, the third most powerful November hurricane on record in the Atlantic Basin, behind only the 1932 Cuba hurricane, 2020's hurricanes Iota and Eta, and a tie of 1999's Hurricane Lenny, and 2001's Hurricane Michelle. Paloma also marked the first time that at least one major hurricane formed in every month of the hurricane season from July to November, with only June not having a major hurricane in the season.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Effects of Hurricane Ivan in the Greater Antilles</span>

From September 8 to 14, 2004, Hurricane Ivan moved through the Caribbean Sea, affecting all of the Greater Antilles. Reaching peak winds of 165 mph (266 km/h), Ivan attained Category 5 strength on the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale, the strongest possible category, on three times in the Caribbean. It first lashed the southern coasts of Puerto Rico and Hispaniola with high waves, killing five people in the Dominican Republic and Haiti; in the latter country, two others drowned due to storm flooding. The effects in Jamaica were among the worst from a tropical cyclone in the island's recorded history. The storm caused severe damage which left 18,000 people homeless. An estimated 17 people on the island were killed by Ivan.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hurricane Beta</span> Category 3 Atlantic hurricane in 2005

Hurricane Beta was a compact and intense tropical cyclone that impacted the southwestern Caribbean in late October 2005. Beta was the twenty-fourth tropical storm, fourteenth hurricane, and seventh and final major hurricane of the record-breaking 2005 Atlantic hurricane season. On October 21, a developing tropical wave entered the eastern Caribbean Sea and spawned Tropical Storm Alpha the following day. As the wave entered the southwestern Caribbean, convection redeveloped and on October 26, the system spawned another low-pressure area which developed into Tropical Depression Twenty-six. The depression intensified into a tropical storm the next morning and was named Beta. By the morning of October 28, the storm intensified into a hurricane, the fourteenth of the season. Beta underwent rapid intensification for several hours to attain its peak intensity with winds of 115 mph (185 km/h) on October 30. The storm began to deteriorate before landfall, weakening to Category 2 status as it crossed the Nicaraguan coastline. Rapid weakening followed landfall, and the storm dissipated early the next morning.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">2015 Atlantic hurricane season</span>

The 2015 Atlantic hurricane season was the last of three consecutive below average Atlantic hurricane seasons. It produced twelve tropical cyclones, eleven named storms, four hurricanes, and two major hurricanes. The Accumulated Cyclone Energy (ACE) for the season was 68% of the long-term median value. The hurricane season officially began on June 1, 2015, and ended on November 30, 2015. These dates historically describe the period each year when most tropical cyclones form in the North Atlantic basin. However, the first named storm, Ana, developed on May 8, nearly a month before the official start of the season, the first pre-season cyclone since Beryl in 2012 and the earliest since Ana in 2003. The formation of Ana marked the start of a series of seven consecutive seasons with pre-season activity, spanning from 2015 to 2021. The season concluded with Kate transitioning into an extratropical cyclone on November 11, almost three weeks before the official end.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hurricane Danny (2015)</span> Category 3 Atlantic hurricane in 2015

Hurricane Danny was the first major hurricane to develop between the Lesser Antilles and Western Africa since Hurricane Julia in 2010. The fourth tropical cyclone, and first hurricane of the 2015 Atlantic hurricane season, Danny originated from a well-defined tropical wave that emerged over the Atlantic Ocean on August 14. Traveling west, the system gradually coalesced into a tropical depression by August 18. After becoming a tropical storm later that day, dry air slowed further development. On August 20–21, dry air became removed from the system, and Danny rapidly intensified into a Category 3 hurricane on the Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale. Its peak was short-lived as wind shear soon increased and prompted significant weakening. Degrading to a tropical storm by August 23, Danny approached the Lesser Antilles. It degenerated into a tropical wave as it traversed the archipelago on August 24 and was last noted over Hispaniola the following day.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hurricane Joaquin</span> Category 4 Atlantic hurricane in 2015

Hurricane Joaquin was a powerful tropical cyclone that devastated several districts of The Bahamas and caused damage in the Turks and Caicos Islands, parts of the Greater Antilles, and Bermuda. It was also the strongest Atlantic hurricane of non-tropical origin recorded in the satellite era. The tenth named storm, third hurricane, and second major hurricane of the 2015 Atlantic hurricane season, Joaquin evolved from a non-tropical low to become a tropical depression on September 28, well southwest of Bermuda. Tempered by unfavorable wind shear, the depression drifted southwestward. After becoming a tropical storm the next day, Joaquin underwent rapid intensification, reaching hurricane status on September 30 and Category 4 major hurricane strength on October 1. Meandering over the southern Bahamas, Joaquin's eye passed near or over several islands. On October 3, the hurricane weakened somewhat and accelerated to the northeast. Abrupt re-intensification ensued later that day, and Joaquin acquired sustained winds of 155 mph (250 km/h), just short of Category 5 strength.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hurricane Earl (2016)</span> Category 1 Atlantic hurricane in 2016

Hurricane Earl was the deadliest Atlantic hurricane to impact Mexico since Hurricane Stan in 2005. The fifth named storm and second hurricane of the 2016 Atlantic hurricane season, Earl formed from a tropical wave south of Jamaica on August 2. The precursor to Earl brought torrential rainfall and flooding to the Lesser Antilles. Upon classification, the storm moved westward through the Caribbean Sea, brushing the north coast of Honduras. Earl strengthened into an 85 mph (140 km/h) hurricane before making landfall on Belize on August 4. It weakened while moving across the Yucatán Peninsula, but reintensified in the Bay of Campeche and followed the coastline. On August 6, Earl dissipated after moving ashore Veracruz.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hurricane Matthew</span> Category 5 Atlantic hurricane in 2016

Hurricane Matthew was a powerful tropical cyclone which caused catastrophic damage and a humanitarian crisis in Haiti, as well as widespread devastation in the southeastern United States. The deadliest Atlantic hurricane since Hurricane Stan in 2005, and the first Category 5 Atlantic hurricane since Felix in 2007, Matthew was the thirteenth named storm, fifth hurricane and second major hurricane of the 2016 Atlantic hurricane season. It caused extensive damage to landmasses in the Greater Antilles, and severe damage in several islands of the Bahamas which were still recovering from Joaquin, which had pounded the archipelago nearly a year earlier. Matthew also approached the southeastern United States, but stayed just offshore, paralleling the Florida coastline.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Effects of Hurricane Matthew in Haiti</span>

Hurricane Matthew struck southwestern Haiti near Les Anglais on October 4, 2016, leaving widespread damage in the impoverished nation. Matthew was a late-season Category 5 hurricane on the Saffir–Simpson scale, having formed in the southeastern Caribbean on September 28. The hurricane weakened to Category 4 before making landfall near Les Anglais on October 4, at which time the National Hurricane Center estimated maximum sustained winds of 240 km/h (150 mph). This made it the strongest storm to hit the nation since Hurricane Cleo in 1964, and the third strongest Haitian landfall on record. Hurricane-force winds – 119 km/h (74 mph) or greater – affected about 1.125 million people in the country. The Haitian government assessed the death toll at 674, although other sources reported more than three times that figure.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tropical Storm Kirk (2018)</span> Atlantic tropical storm

Tropical Storm Kirk was the second lowest-latitude tropical storm on record in the Atlantic basin. The eleventh named storm of the 2018 Atlantic hurricane season, Kirk originated from a tropical wave that left Africa on September 20 and organized into a tropical depression two days later. The system intensified into Tropical Storm Kirk early on September 22 but quickly degenerated into a tropical wave again early the next day. A reduction in the disturbance's forward speed allowed it to regain tropical storm intensity on September 26. Kirk reached maximum sustained winds of 65 mph (105 km/h) that morning before increasing westerly wind shear caused the cyclone to steadily weaken. The storm made landfall on Saint Lucia with winds of 50 mph (80 km/h) before continuing into the Caribbean Sea. Kirk degenerated to a tropical wave again on September 28, and its remnants continued westward, contributing to the formation of Hurricane Michael ten days later.

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  3. ↑ Stacy R. Stewart (August 20, 2015). Tropical Weather Outlook (Report). Miami, Florida: National Hurricane Center. Retrieved August 28, 2015.
  4. ↑ John P. Cangialosi (August 22, 2015). Tropical Weather Outlook (Report). Miami, Florida: National Hurricane Center. Retrieved August 28, 2015.
  5. ↑ Todd B. Kimberlain (August 23, 2015). Tropical Weather Outlook (Report). Miami, Florida: National Hurricane Center. Retrieved August 28, 2015.
  6. 1 2 Daniel P. Brown (August 25, 2015). Tropical Storm Erika Discussion Number 1 (Report). Miami, Florida: National Hurricane Center. Retrieved August 30, 2015.
  7. ↑ James L. Franklin (September 10, 2015). "After Further Review: Tropical Storm Erika". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved March 8, 2016.
  8. ↑ Richard J. Pasch (August 25, 2015). Tropical Storm Erika Discussion Number 3 (Report). Miami, Florida: National Hurricane Center. Retrieved August 30, 2015.
  9. ↑ Michael J. Brennan (August 27, 2015). Tropical Storm Erika Discussion Number 10 (Report). Miami, Florida: National Hurricane Center. Retrieved August 30, 2015.
  10. ↑ Lixion A. Avila (August 28, 2015). Tropical Storm Erika Discussion Number 13 (Report). Miami, Florida: National Hurricane Center. Retrieved August 30, 2015.
  11. ↑ Jack L. Beven (August 29, 2015). Remnants of Erika Special Discussion Number 19 (Report). Miami, Florida: National Hurricane Center. Retrieved August 30, 2015.
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  38. ↑ Laurie-Anne Virassamy (August 27, 2015). "Erika perturbe la Martinique" (in French). France Télévisions. Retrieved August 30, 2015.
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  41. ↑ Jeff Masters (August 29, 2015). "Erika Dissipates". Weather Underground. Archived from the original on August 31, 2015. Retrieved August 30, 2015.
  42. ↑ "Erika leaves over 7,300 displaced in Dominican Republic". Dominican Today . Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic. August 29, 2015. Retrieved August 30, 2015.
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  45. ↑ Florida Event Report: Heavy Rain (Report). National Centers for Environmental Information. 2015. Retrieved April 18, 2017.{{cite report}}: Unknown parameter |agency= ignored (help)
  46. ↑ Florida Event Report: Lightning (Report). National Centers for Environmental Information. 2015. Retrieved April 18, 2017.{{cite report}}: Unknown parameter |agency= ignored (help)
  47. ↑ Georgia Event Report: Thunderstorm Wind (Report). National Centers for Environmental Information. 2015. Retrieved April 18, 2017.{{cite report}}: Unknown parameter |agency= ignored (help)
  48. ↑ Georgia Event Report: Thunderstorm Wind (Report). National Centers for Environmental Information. 2015. Retrieved April 18, 2017.{{cite report}}: Unknown parameter |agency= ignored (help)
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  88. ↑ "Gobierno venezolano envió 10 toneladas más de medicinas, alimento y agua a Dominica" (in Spanish). Caracas, Venezuela: ReliefWeb. Government of Venezuela. September 1, 2015. Retrieved March 8, 2016.
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  92. ↑ "RFA Lyme Bay arrives in Dominica to provide humanitarian relief". ReliefWeb. Government of the United Kingdom. September 2, 2015. Retrieved March 8, 2016.
  93. ↑ "RFA Lyme Bay receives praise from High Commissioner for Dominica Aid". ReliefWeb. Department for International Development. September 8, 2015. Retrieved March 13, 2016.
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  95. ↑ "The Government of the Republic of China (Taiwan) Provides Relief Assistance to the Commonwealth of Dominica". ReliefWeb. Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States. September 15, 2015. Retrieved March 13, 2016.
  96. ↑ CDEMA Situation Report #10 - Tropical Storm Erika (as of 5:00 pm on September 6th, 2015) (PDF). Caribbean Disaster Emergency Management Agency (Situation Report). ReliefWeb. September 6, 2015. Retrieved March 8, 2016.
  97. ↑ "Telecommunications Companies Partner to Bring Relief". ReliefWeb. Government of Dominica. September 9, 2015. Retrieved March 13, 2016.
  98. ↑ "Digicel and Red Cross Partner to Bring Relief". ReliefWeb. Government of Dominica. September 29, 2015. Retrieved March 13, 2016.
  99. ↑ "Cayman Islands Government sends aid to Dominica". ReliefWeb. Government of the Cayman Islands. September 8, 2015. Retrieved March 13, 2016.
  100. ↑ "Japan Gives $100,000 in Relief Supplies". ReliefWeb. Government of Dominica. September 9, 2015. Retrieved March 13, 2016.
  101. ↑ "Japan and Dominica sign agreement for resilience". Government of Dominica (Press release). ReliefWeb. January 27, 2016. Retrieved July 3, 2016.
  102. ↑ "T&T gives $5 million aid to storm-damaged Dominica". ReliefWeb. Government of Trinidad and Tobago. October 9, 2015. Retrieved March 13, 2016.
  103. ↑ "Private sector teams up with Government to send 75 tons of rice to the Dominica". ReliefWeb. Government of Guyana. September 14, 2015. Retrieved March 13, 2016.
  104. ↑ "CCRIF pays Government of Dominica EC$6.5 million under its Excess Rainfall Programme following Tropical Storm Erika". ReliefWeb. Caribbean Catastrophe Risk Insurance Facility. September 10, 2015. Retrieved March 13, 2016.
  105. ↑ "Commonwealth Caribbean Community supports Dominica in wake of storm". ReliefWeb. Commonwealth Secretariat. October 2, 2015. Retrieved March 13, 2016.
  106. ↑ "ADRA donates EC $34,375 for relief efforts". ReliefWeb. Government of Dominica. September 16, 2015. Retrieved March 13, 2016.
  107. ↑ "ITU deploys emergency telecommunication equipment in Dominica". ReliefWeb. International Telecommunication Union. September 3, 2015. Retrieved March 8, 2016.
  108. ↑ "PAHO donates medical supplies to Dominica in aftermath of Tropical Storm Erika". ReliefWeb. Pan American Health Organization. September 14, 2015. Retrieved March 13, 2016.
  109. ↑ "Brazil gifts medical supplies". ReliefWeb. Government of Dominica. October 16, 2015. Retrieved March 13, 2016.
  110. ↑ Dominica: Tropical Storm Erika - Emergency Appeal (MDRDM002) (PDF) (Report). ReliefWeb. September 10, 2015. Retrieved March 13, 2016.{{cite report}}: Unknown parameter |agency= ignored (help)
  111. ↑ Dominica: Tropical Storm Erika - Emergency Plan of Action Final Report (MDRDM002) (PDF) (Report). ReliefWeb. March 1, 2017. Retrieved March 21, 2017.{{cite report}}: Unknown parameter |agency= ignored (help)
  112. ↑ CDEMA approves funds to support advancement of Disaster Legislation in Dominica (PDF) (Report). Barbados: ReliefWeb. April 10, 2017. Retrieved April 25, 2017.{{cite report}}: Unknown parameter |agency= ignored (help)
  113. 1 2 3 "New community planned for Dominica residents displaced by Erika". Roseau, Dominica: Caribbean News Now. February 22, 2016. Archived from the original on March 10, 2016. Retrieved March 8, 2016.
  114. ↑ "Exclusive Post-Erika discussion with Petite Savanne and Grand Bay Representatives". ReliefWeb. Government of Dominica. September 18, 2015. Retrieved March 13, 2016.
  115. 1 2 "Contracts signed for post Erika reconstruction". Government of Dominica (Press release). ReliefWeb. April 12, 2016. Retrieved July 3, 2021.
  116. ↑ "Government identifies sites for permanent relocation of evacuees". ReliefWeb. Government of Dominica. October 15, 2015. Retrieved March 13, 2016.
  117. ↑ CDEMA Situation Report #12 - Tropical Storm Erika (as of 5:00 pm on September 28th, 2015) (PDF). Caribbean Disaster Emergency Management Agency (Situation Report). ReliefWeb. September 28, 2015. Retrieved March 13, 2016.
  118. ↑ "Full Water Restoration to all Communities Complete Post TS Erika". Government of Dominica. ReliefWeb. January 4, 2016. Retrieved March 9, 2016.
  119. ↑ "French organizations fund rehabilitation of two schools". ReliefWeb. Government of Dominica. October 27, 2015. Retrieved March 13, 2016.
  120. ↑ "Work Continues at Douglas–Charles". Government Information Services of Dominica. October 28, 2016. Retrieved April 25, 2017.
  121. ↑ Royston Philbert (February 16, 2016). "In Dominica, ADRA begins rebuilding after Tropical Storm Erika devastation". Colihaut, Dominica: Seventh-Day Adventist Church. Retrieved April 25, 2017.
  122. ↑ "Old library to become Post-Erika Reconstruction Centre". Government of Dominica (Press release). ReliefWeb. April 7, 2016. Retrieved July 3, 2021.
  123. ↑ "Dominica signs £8.9m Agreement with EU". ReliefWeb. Government of Dominica. November 10, 2016. Retrieved March 21, 2017.
  124. ↑ "$100M Road Project for South East to Commence Soon". Government Information Services of Dominica. March 28, 2017. Retrieved April 25, 2017.
  125. ↑ Richard Pasch, Andrew Penny, and Robbie Berg (February 19, 2019). Hurricane Maria (AL152017) (PDF) (Report). Tropical Cyclone Report. National Hurricane Center. Retrieved July 3, 2021.{{cite report}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  126. ↑ Dominica: Hurricane Maria (PDF) (Information Bulletin). International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies. September 25, 2017. Archived (PDF) from the original on September 27, 2017. Retrieved July 3, 2021.
  127. ↑ Post-Disaster Needs Assessment Hurricane Maria September 18, 2017 (PDF) (Report). Resilient Caribbean Caricom. November 15, 2017. Archived (PDF) from the original on December 20, 2019. Retrieved July 3, 2021.
  128. ↑ "Maria among 2017's retired storm names". Dominica News Online. April 12, 2018. Archived from the original on June 16, 2018. Retrieved July 3, 2021.
  129. ↑ "World Meteorological Organization retires storm names Erika, Joaquin and Patricia". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. April 25, 2016. Retrieved April 26, 2016.
  130. ↑ Rice, Doyle (April 26, 2016). "Hurricane names Patricia, Joaquin and Erika retired". USA Today. Archived from the original on January 23, 2024. Retrieved April 12, 2024.
  131. ↑ National Hurricane Operations Plan (PDF) (Report). Washington, D.C.: NOAA Office of the Federal Coordinator for Meteorological Services and Supporting Research. May 2021. p. 3-8. Archived (PDF) from the original on September 3, 2023. Retrieved April 12, 2024.
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