1938 New England hurricane

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Saffir–Simpson scale
  Tropical depression (≤38 mph, ≤62 km/h)
  Tropical storm (39–73 mph, 63–118 km/h)
  Category 1 (74–95 mph, 119–153 km/h)
  Category 2 (96–110 mph, 154–177 km/h)
  Category 3 (111–129 mph, 178–208 km/h)
  Category 4 (130–156 mph, 209–251 km/h)
  Category 5 (≥157 mph, ≥252 km/h)
  Unknown
Storm type
Disc Plain black.svg Tropical cyclone
Solid black.svg Subtropical cyclone
ArrowUp.svg Extratropical cyclone, remnant low, tropical disturbance, or monsoon depression

The Atlantic hurricane reanalysis project analyzed the 1938 Atlantic hurricane season in 2012, [12] and Weather Bureau forecaster Ivan Ray Tannehill noted that the knowledge of the storm's existence at the time remained tenuous until September 17 when the cyclone had already increased to a hurricane. [13] Based on land and marine observations, [14] the reanalysis project concluded that the 1938 hurricane began as a tropical depression just off the coast of West Africa at 12:00 UTC (8 a.m. Eastern Standard Time) on September 9, becoming the sixth tropical cyclone of the season. The depression gradually strengthened, becoming a tropical storm less than a day after tropical cyclogenesis. It was inferred to have reached hurricane intensity over the central Atlantic by September 15, [15] though ship observations became increasingly sparse as the cyclone tracked farther away from land. [14] The first definitive indication of a tropical cyclone at sea was a report from the Brazilian ship SS Alegrete which documented a barometric pressure of 958 mbar (hPa; 28.29 inHg) within hurricane-force winds on September 17. [13] [14] Based on this observation, the hurricane had maximum sustained winds of 125 mph (201 km/h), [14] making it the equivalent of a high-end Category 3 hurricane on the Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale. [16]

The hurricane continued to slowly strengthen and track westward at around 20 mph (32 km/h) about the southern periphery of a subtropical ridge centered over the Bermuda. [13] [17] On September 18, a strong extratropical cyclone developed just west of Chicago, generating a strong influx of cooler air from Canada into the eastern United States and thus forming a sharp cold front over the region; this frontal boundary resulted in a channel of moist, tropical air being steered northwards into New England. [17] At 18:00 UTC (2 p.m. EST) on September 19, the tropical cyclone strengthened further into a Category 5-equivalent hurricane with sustained winds of 160 mph (260 km/h) while north of the Turks and Caicos; [15] this figure remained unchanged in reanalysis and serves as the storm's peak strength, although the reanalysis project noted that "considerable uncertainty" remains regarding the magnitude of the storm's maximum intensity at sea. [14] Concurrently, the hurricane began to interact with the cold front over the East Coast, causing the tropical cyclone to curve northward towards the northeastern United States; [17] [18] the presence of the subtropical ridge to the east and the stationary nature of the frontal boundary prevented the storm from continuing to curve out to sea. [17]

Surface weather map depicting the hurricane's first landfall on Long Island. Surface weather map depicting the hurricane's first landfall on Long Island..png
Surface weather map depicting the hurricane's first landfall on Long Island.

As the hurricane accelerated northward, it gradually weakened. [15] [17] [19] On the morning of September 21, it passed roughly 75 mi (121 km) east of Cape Hatteras. At 12:00 UTC (8 a.m. EST) that day, the storm was estimated to have a barometric pressure of 940 mbar (940 hPa; 28 inHg); this is the hurricane's lowest documented pressure. At 19:45 UTC (3:45 p.m. EST), the hurricane made landfall on Long Island over Bellport, New York with maximum sustained winds of 120 mph (190 km/h) and a pressure of 941 mbar (941 hPa; 27.8 inHg), making it the strongest tropical cyclone to hit the New York City area. [20] It was moving rapidly northward at 47 mph (76 km/h), enhancing the intensity of the winds east of the center; in addition, its forward motion displaced its center of circulation 17 mi (27 km) away from the point of minimum barometric pressure. Weather Bureau forecaster Charles Pierce argued that the hurricane became extratropical off of the Outer Banks, though Charles J. Neumann, Frances P. Ho, and the Atlantic hurricane reanalysis project suggested that it was tropical but in the process of extratropical transition at landfall. Afterwards, it quickly tracked across Long Island and Long Island Sound before making a second and final landfall near New Haven, Connecticut as a slightly weaker hurricane with winds of 115 mph (185 km/h), making it one of only three recorded tropical cyclones to hit Connecticut as major hurricanes since 1900. [note 2] [14] [22] The storm rapidly weakened, completing extratropical transition over Vermont by 00:00 UTC on September 22 (September 21, 8:00 p.m. EST). Following this transition, the remnants continued to weaken before they dissipated over southeastern Ontario on September 23. [15]

Forecasting the storm

The 1938 hurricane surprised the United States Weather Bureau in that it did not take the typical track as it approached the area of the southeastern Bahamas. Normally, tropical cyclones approach the eastern Bahamas then slowly recurve north and northeast off the United States East Coast and move out to sea. The Jacksonville, Florida, office of the weather bureau issued a warning on September 19 that a hurricane might hit Florida. Residents and authorities made extensive preparations, as they had endured the Labor Day Hurricane three years earlier. When the storm turned north, the office issued warnings for the Carolina coast and transferred authority to the bureau's headquarters in Washington. Both the Jacksonville and Washington, DC offices expected the cyclone to reach the ocean off North Carolina and then head harmlessly out to sea.

At 9:00 am EDT on September 21, the Washington office issued northeast storm warnings north of Atlantic City and south of Block Island, Rhode Island, and southeast storm warnings from Block Island to Eastport, Maine. [23] The advisory, however, underestimated the storm's intensity and said that it was farther south than it actually was. [23] The office had yet to forward any information about the hurricane to the New York City office. [23] At 10:00 am EDT, the bureau downgraded the hurricane to a tropical storm. The 11:30 am advisory mentioned gale-force winds but nothing about a tropical storm or hurricane. [23]

That day, 28 year-old rookie Charles Pierce was standing in for two veteran meteorologists. He concluded that the storm would be squeezed between a high-pressure area located to the west and a high-pressure area to the east, and that it would be forced to ride up a trough of low pressure into New England. A noon meeting was called and Pierce presented his conclusion, but he was overruled by "celebrated" chief forecaster Charles Mitchell and his senior staff. In Boston, meteorologist E.B. Rideout told his WEEI radio listeners – to the skepticism of his peers – that the hurricane would hit New England. [24] At 2:00 pm, hurricane-force gusts were occurring on Long Island's South Shore and near hurricane-force gusts on the coast of Connecticut. The Washington office issued an advisory saying that the storm was 75 mi (120 km) east-southeast of Atlantic City and would pass over Long Island and Connecticut. Re-analysis of the storm suggests that the hurricane was farther north and just 50 mi (80 km) from Fire Island, and that it was stronger and larger than the advisory stated. [23]

Impact

A postcard view of flooding from the hurricane at Buzzards Bay station Buzzards Bay station after 1938 hurricane postcard.jpg
A postcard view of flooding from the hurricane at Buzzards Bay station

The majority of the storm damage was from storm surge and wind. Damage was estimated at $308 million (equivalent to $6.67 billion in 2023), making it among the most costly hurricanes to strike the U.S. mainland. [25] It is estimated that, if an identical hurricane had struck in 2005, it would have caused $39.2 billion in damage due to changes in population and infrastructure. [26]

Approximately 600 people died in the storm on Long Island, New York, and in Connecticut and Rhode Island. [27] An additional 708 people were reported injured. [28]

In total, 4,500 cottages, farms, and other homes were reported destroyed and 25,000 homes were damaged. Other damages included 26,000 automobiles destroyed and 20,000 electrical poles toppled. The hurricane also devastated the forests of the Northeast, knocking down an estimated two billion trees in New York and New England. [28] Freshwater flooding was minimal, however, as the quick passage of the storm decreased local rainfall totals, with only a few small areas receiving over 10 inches (250 mm).

Over 35% of New England's total forest area was affected. In all, over 2.7 billion board feet of trees fell because of the storm, although 1.6 billion board feet of the trees were salvaged. [29] The Northeastern Timber Salvage Administration (NETSA) was established to deal with the extreme fire hazard that the fallen timber had created. [30] In many locations, roads from the fallen tree removal were visible decades later, and some became trails still used today.[ citation needed ] The New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad from New Haven to Providence was particularly hard hit, as countless bridges along the Shore Line were destroyed or flooded, severing rail connections to badly affected towns such as Westerly, Rhode Island. Due to the lack of technology in 1938, Long Island residents were not warned of the hurricane's arrival, [31] leaving no time to prepare or evacuate. [32] " [32] The winds reached up to 150 mph (240 km/h), with waves surging to around 25–35 feet (7.6–10.7 m) high. [33]

Yale and Harvard both owned large forests managed by their forestry departments, but both forests were wiped out by the hurricane. However, Yale had a backup forest at Great Mountain in northwestern Connecticut which was spared from the totality of the damages, and they were able to keep their forestry program running, which maintains operation today. Harvard's program, however, was reduced as a result. [34]

New Jersey

The western side of the hurricane caused sustained tropical storm-force winds, high waves, and storm surge along the Jersey Shore [35] and destroyed much of the boardwalk in Atlantic City. The Brigantine Bridge was destroyed over Absecon Inlet between Atlantic City and Brigantine, New Jersey. [36] The surge inundated several coastal communities; Wildwood was under 3 feet (1 m) of water at the height of the storm, and the boardwalk was destroyed in Bay Head and dozens of cottages washed into the ocean. Crops sustained wind damage. [37] The maximum recorded wind gust was 70 mph (110 km/h) at Sandy Hook. [35]

New York City and western Long Island

The metropolitan area escaped the worst of the wind and storm surge because it was hit by the storm's weaker western side. Winds were recorded at 60 mph (97 km/h) at Central Park, Battery Park recorded sustained winds of 70 mph (110 km/h) with gusts to 80 mph (130 km/h), and a gust of 90 mph (140 km/h) was recorded 500 ft (150 m) above ground at the Daily News Building. Winds were estimated at 120 mph (190 km/h) on top of the Empire State Building. [38] The highest winds were from the north to northwest on the back side of the storm. [39] The storm surge was 8.5 ft (2.6 m) at the Battery and the Mean Low Water storm tide was 16.75 ft (5.11 m) at Willets Point. [38] In New York Harbor, the waters rose 7 ft (2.1 m) in a half-hour. [38]

In New York City and Long Island, schools were dismissed early. [23] [40] Extensive street flooding occurred because debris blocked drains. [23] The East River flowed three blocks and flooded a Consolidated Edison (Con Ed) plant at 133rd Street, causing power to fail in Manhattan north of 59th Street and in the Bronx for several minutes to a few hours. Railroad and ferry services were suspended for a time. The Staten Island Ferry boat Knickerbocker got stuck in the terminal with 200 passengers aboard. [23] [39] Bridges and tunnels into Manhattan were closed until the following afternoon. 95% of Nassau County lost power, where floods brought traffic to a halt. [39]

During the hurricane, starting before it hit and continuing after, a citywide trucker strike occurred across both NYC and New Jersey, this led to some complications to the relief effort. However, the unions made critical exceptions for relief supplies. Moving food supplies to relief depots, ballots for the New York primary before the hurricane hit while people were evacuating, and manning 1,000 relief sanitation trucks deployed by Mayor La Guardia with supplies after the hurricane had hit. [41] [42] [43]

In Manhasset Bay, almost 400 boats were ripped from their moorings and smashed or sunk, with more than 100 washing up on the beach by the Port Washington Yacht Club. Similar scenes occurred in other locations on the north shore. The J. P. Morgan estate in Glen Cove was heavily damaged. The wife of New York City mayor Fiorello La Guardia was forced to wait out the storm on the second floor of their Northport cottage. Mitchel Field army airfield was buffeted by winds of nearly 100 mph (160 km/h) and was under knee-deep water. [44] In Williston Park, residents of 50 homes needed to be rescued by rowboat when heavy rain the previous few days combined with the rain from the hurricane to overflow a pond. [3] [40] [45] [46] [47] [48]

Eastern Long Island

The orientation of Eastern Long Island facing due south, made it extremely exposed to the storm surge and intense winds. The estimated peak storm tide in parts of eastern Long Island was 20 ft (6.1 m).

A mean low water storm tide of 8 ft (2.4 m) was recorded at Port Jefferson. [38] About 50 people perished in the storm's wake. [31] The Dune Road area of Westhampton Beach was obliterated, resulting in 29 deaths. There were 21 other deaths through the rest of the east end of Long Island. The storm surge temporarily turned Montauk into an island as it flooded across the South Fork at Napeague and obliterated the tracks of the Long Island Rail Road. Many other smaller roads were wiped away in the storm surge. So extensive was the storm surge and overwash on eastern Long Island, that rescue works had to use utility maps to figure out were roads and homes had been.

Ten new inlets were created on eastern Long Island. [38] The surge rearranged the sand at the Cedar Point Lighthouse so that the island became connected to what is now Cedar Point County Park. The surging water created the Shinnecock Inlet by carving out a large section of barrier island separating Shinnecock Bay from the Atlantic. The storm toppled the landmark steeple of the Old Whaler's Church, [49] which was the tallest building in Sag Harbor. The steeple has not been rebuilt.

Wading River suffered substantial damage. The storm blew down the movie theater on Front Street in Greenport on the North Fork of Long Island. The fishing industry was destroyed, as was half of the apple crop. [38]

Rhode Island

Damage in Island Park, Rhode Island GHo1938damage.jpg
Damage in Island Park, Rhode Island
Water levels of the 1815 and 1938 hurricanes are marked at Old Market House, Providence Hurricane water levels at Old Market House Providence.jpg
Water levels of the 1815 and 1938 hurricanes are marked at Old Market House, Providence

The storm surge was especially violent along the Rhode Island coastline, sweeping hundreds of summer cottages out to sea. As the surge drove northward through Narragansett Bay, it was restricted by the Bay's funnel shape and rose to 15.8 ft (4.8 m) above normal spring tides, resulting in more than 13 feet (4.0 m) of water in some areas of downtown Providence. Several motorists were drowned in their automobiles. [50] In Jamestown, seven children were killed when their school bus was blown into Mackerel Cove. [51] Mobs looted stores in downtown Providence, often before the flood waters had fully subsided and due in part to the economic difficulties of the Great Depression. The tide was higher than usual because of the autumnal equinox and full moon, and the hurricane produced storm tides of 14 to 18 feet (5 m) along most of the Connecticut coast, with 18 to 25-foot (8 m) tides from New London, Connecticut east to Cape Cod—including the entire coastline of Rhode Island.

Many homes and structures were destroyed along the coast, as well as many structures inland along the hurricane's path, and entire beach communities were obliterated on the coast. Napatree Point was completely swept away, a small cape that housed nearly 40 families between the Atlantic Ocean and Little Narragansett Bay just off of Watch Hill. Napatree is now a wildlife refuge with no human inhabitants. Concrete staircases and boardwalk bases destroyed by the hurricane can still be found when sand levels are low on some beaches. The boardwalk along Easton's Beach in Newport was completely destroyed by the storm. [51]

A few miles from Conanicut Island, Whale Rock Light was swept off its base and into the waves, killing lighthouse keeper Walter Eberle. His body was never found. The Prudence Island Light suffered a direct blow from the storm surge, which measured 17 feet 5 inches (5.31 m) at Sandy Point. The masonry tower was slightly damaged, but the adjoining light keeper's home was utterly destroyed and washed out to sea. The light keeper's wife and son were both killed, as well as the former light keeper and a couple who left their summer cottages near the lighthouse and sought shelter in what they thought was the sturdier light keeper's home. Light keeper George T. Gustavus was thrown free from the wreckage of the house and was saved by an island resident who held a branch into the water from the cliffs farther down the coast. Gustavus and Milton Chase, the owner of the island's power plant, reactivated the light during the storm by running a cable from the plant to the light and installing a light bulb, marking the first time that it was illuminated with electricity. [52]

The original parchment of the 1764 Charter of Brown University was washed clean of its text when its vault was flooded in a Providence bank. [53] Newport recorded the highest water level of the storm at 11.5 feet (4 m) above mean sea level, according to a NOAA study. [54] This storm level is 3 feet (1 m) above the SLOSH model of a 100-year storm, and one estimate is that this water level "reflects a storm occurring roughly once every 400 years." [55] A study of sand deposits also gives evidence that this was the strongest hurricane to hit Rhode Island in over 300 years. [54] [55] The Fox Point Hurricane Barrier was completed in 1966 because of the massive flooding from the 1938 storm, and from the even higher 14.4-foot (4.4 m) storm surge that resulted from 1954's Hurricane Carol, in hopes of preventing extreme storm surges from ever again flooding downtown Providence. [56]

Connecticut

Flooding in Bushnell Park in Hartford, Connecticut in the aftermath of the hurricane; the Travelers Insurance Co. building appears in the back 1938 New England hurricane flooding.jpg
Flooding in Bushnell Park in Hartford, Connecticut in the aftermath of the hurricane; the Travelers Insurance Co. building appears in the back
Tobacco barn in Connecticut, 1938, by Sheldon Dick Sheldon Dick New England Hurricane.jpg
Tobacco barn in Connecticut, 1938, by Sheldon Dick

Eastern Connecticut was on the eastern side of the hurricane. Long Island acted as a buffer against large ocean surges, but the waters of Long Island Sound rose to great heights. Small shoreline towns to the east of New Haven experienced much destruction from the water and winds, and the 1938 hurricane holds the record for the worst natural disaster in Connecticut's 350-year history. The mean low-water storm tide was 14.1 ft (4.3 m) at Stamford, 12.8 ft (3.9 m) at Bridgeport, and 10.58 ft (3.22 m) at New London, which remains a record high. [38]

In the shoreline towns of Madison, Clinton, Westbrook, and Old Saybrook, buildings were found as wreckage across coastal roads. Actress Katharine Hepburn waded to safety from her Old Saybrook beach home, narrowly escaping death. She stated in her 1991 book that 95% of her personal belongings were either lost or destroyed, including her first Oscar for her appearance in Morning Glory , which was later found intact. [57] In Old Lyme, beach cottages were flattened or swept away. The NYNH&H passenger train Bostonian became stuck in debris at Stonington. Two passengers drowned while attempting to escape before the crew was able to clear the debris and get the train moving. [23] Along the Stonington shorefront, buildings were swept off their foundations and found two miles (3.2 km) inland. Rescuers found live fish and crabs in kitchen drawers and cabinets while searching for survivors in the homes in Mystic.

New London was first swept by the winds and storm surge, after which the waterfront business district caught fire and burned out of control for 10 hours. Stately homes along Ocean Beach were leveled by the storm surge. The permanently anchored 240-ton lightship at the head of New London Harbor was found on a sand bar two miles (3.2 km) away. Interior sections of the state experienced widespread flooding as the hurricane's torrential rains fell on soil already saturated from previous storms. The Connecticut River was forced out of its banks, inundating cities and towns from Hartford to Middletown.

Ultimately the storm became the deadliest and costliest storm in Connecticut history. [58]

Massachusetts

Aerial photo of Marchmont in Winchendon Springs, Massachusetts taken during the summer of 1938. Marchmont - Winchendon Springs MA.jpg
Aerial photo of Marchmont in Winchendon Springs, Massachusetts taken during the summer of 1938.
Devastated landscape around Marchmont on September 23, 1938 Marchmont after Sept. 23, 1938.jpg
Devastated landscape around Marchmont on September 23, 1938

The eye of the storm followed the Connecticut River north into Massachusetts, where the winds and flooding killed 99 people. In Springfield, the river rose six to 10 feet (3 m) above flood stage, causing significant damage. Up to 6 in (150 mm) of rain fell across western Massachusetts, which combined with over 4 in (100 mm) that had fallen a few days earlier to produce widespread flooding. Flash flooding on the Chicopee River washed away the Chicopee Falls Bridge, while the Connecticut River flooded most of the Willimansett section. Residents of Ware were stranded for days and relied on air-dropped food and medicine. After the flood receded, the town's Main Street was a chasm in which sewer pipes could be seen.

To the east, the surge left Falmouth and New Bedford under eight feet of water. Two-thirds of the boats sank in New Bedford harbor. Several homes were washed away on Atlantic Boulevard in Fall River, and their foundations can still be found on the beach today. The Blue Hill Observatory registered sustained winds of 121 mph (195 km/h) and a peak gust of 186 mph (299 km/h), which is the strongest hurricane-related surface wind gust ever recorded in the United States. [59] A 50 ft (15 m) wave, the tallest of the storm, was recorded at Gloucester. [38] A Boston Braves game against the Chicago Cubs was called during the storm. [60]

The storm filled in a former waterway between Winthrop's Point Shirley neighborhood and Boston's Deer Island with sand and other natural earth minerals, creating an additional common border between Winthrop and Boston transforming Deer Island at the peninsula's southern tip into an island by name only.[ citation needed ]

Vermont

The storm entered Vermont as a Category 1 hurricane at approximately 6:00 pm EDT, reaching northern Vermont, Burlington, and Lake Champlain around 8:00 pm. [61] [46] Hurricane-force winds caused extensive damage to trees, buildings, and power lines. Over 2,000 miles (3,200 km) of public roads were blocked, and it took months for crews to reopen some of the roads. In Montpelier, 120 miles (190 km) from the nearest coast, salt spray was seen on windows. [62] A train was derailed in Castleton. [46] The storm killed five people in Vermont. Sugar maple groves were damaged. [63] It is the only system on record to have entered the state as a tropical cyclone.

New Hampshire

Damage done to pine forests in Wolfeboro, New Hampshire, 1938, by Peter Roome NH Hurricane-l.jpg
Damage done to pine forests in Wolfeboro, New Hampshire, 1938, by Peter Roome

Even though the storm center tracked further west, through Vermont, New Hampshire received considerable damage. As in Vermont, very high winds brought down numerous trees and electric lines, but rainfall totals in New Hampshire were significantly less than those in other states. Only 1 inch (25 mm) of rain fell in Concord.[ citation needed ] Damage at Peterborough was worse, however; total damage there was stated to be $500,000 (1938 dollars, $6.5 million in 2005), which included the destruction of 10 bridges. Much of the lower downtown burned because floodwaters prevented firefighters from reaching and extinguishing the blaze. Other communities also suffered considerable damage to forest resources. In New Hampshire, 13 people perished. At Mt. Washington, winds gusted to 163 miles per hour (262 km/h) and knocked down part of a trestle on the Cog Railway. [46]

Maine

In Maine, buildings and trees were damaged and power outages occurred. Storm surge was minimal, and winds remained below hurricane strength. The storm did not claim any lives in Maine. [46] [64]

Maryland and Delaware

The western periphery of the hurricane brought heavy rain and gusty winds to Delaware and southeastern Maryland. [65] Damage, if any, is believed to have been minimal.

Quebec

As the hurricane was transitioning into an extratropical cyclone, it tracked into southern Quebec. By the time the system initially crossed into Canada, it continued to produce heavy rain and very strong winds, but interaction with land had caused the system to weaken significantly. Still, many trees were blown down. [66] Otherwise, damage in this region was minimal. [67]

See also

Explanatory notes

  1. ↑ The Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale was formulated in 1969. [11]
  2. ↑ A major hurricane is a storm that ranks as Category 3 or higher on the Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale. [21] According to the Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory, those three cyclones were the 1938 New England hurricane, the 1944 Great Atlantic hurricane, and Hurricane Carol in 1954. [22]

Citations

  1. ↑ Voorhees, Josh (October 29, 2012). "Hurricane Sandy Isn't NYC's First Freak Superstorm". Slate Magazine. Retrieved August 23, 2019.
  2. 1 2 "The Great Hurricane of 1938 - The Long Island Express". Archived from the original on September 25, 2014. Retrieved February 9, 2017.
  3. 1 2 Scotti, R. A. "Sudden Sea – The Great Hurricane of 1938". Boston: Little, Brown & Co., 2003. Archived from the original on January 2, 2007. Retrieved November 30, 2007.
  4. ↑ "New England Numbers Hurricane of '38". NewEngland.com. Yankee Magazine. August 19, 2008. Retrieved April 8, 2024.
  5. ↑ Ian Webster. "$306,000,000 in 1938 is worth $6,734,734,468.09 today". CPI Inflation Calculator. Official Data Foundation. Retrieved April 8, 2024.
  6. ↑ An Actuary Reads the Newspaper (PDF). New York Annual Meeting October 18–21, 1998. Record of the Society of Actuaries. Vol. 24, no. 3. Retrieved October 10, 2021.
  7. ↑ Karen M. Clark (November 12, 2017). "A Hurricane Andrew Message for Insurers". Actuarial Review. Retrieved October 10, 2021.
  8. ↑ "Hurricane 1938 Aftermath". The PBS Network. Retrieved October 10, 2021.
  9. ↑ Lane, F. W. (1966). The Elements Rage. p. 16. ISBN   0-8019-5088-0.
  10. ↑ Lefebvre, Paul (October 19, 2016). "How a hurricane changed New England's forests" (PDF). The Chronicle. Barton, Vermont. p. B1. review of book: 'Thirty-Eight, The Hurricane that Transformed New England', by Stephen Long 2016
  11. ↑ Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory. "Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale". Miami Regional Library. Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved June 15, 2016.
  12. ↑ Landsea, Christopher W.; Hagen, Andrew; Bredemeyer, William; Carrasco, Cristina; Glenn, David A.; Santiago, Adrian; Strahan-Sakoskie, Donna; Dickinson, Michael (March 12, 2014). "A Reanalysis of the 1931–43 Atlantic Hurricane Database" (PDF). Journal of Climate. 27 (16). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration: 6093–6118. Bibcode:2014JCli...27.6093L. doi:10.1175/JCLI-D-13-00503.1. ISSN   0894-8755. S2CID   1785238 . Retrieved June 15, 2016.
  13. 1 2 3 Tannehill, Ivan Ray (September 1938). "Hurricane of September 16 to 22, 1938" (PDF). Monthly Weather Review. 66 (9). Washington, D.C.: Americal Meteorological Society: 286–288. Bibcode:1938MWRv...66..286T. doi: 10.1175/1520-0493(1938)66<286:HOST>2.0.CO;2 . Retrieved June 15, 2016.
  14. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Landsea, Christopher W.; Hagen, Andrew; Bredemeyer, William; Carrasco, Cristina; Glenn, David A.; Santiago, Adrian; Strahan-Sakoskie, Donna; Dickinson, Michael (August 12, 2013). "On-line Supplement for A Reanalysis of the 1931 to 1943 Atlantic Hurricane Database" (PDF). Journal of Climate. Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved June 15, 2016.
  15. 1 2 3 4 "Atlantic hurricane best track (HURDAT version 2)" (Database). United States National Hurricane Center. April 5, 2023. Retrieved October 22, 2024.PD-icon.svg This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
  16. ↑ Schott, Timothy; Landsea, Chris; Hafele, Gene; Lorens, Jeffrey; Taylor, Arthur; Thurm, Harvey; Ward, Bill; Willis, Mark; Zaleski, Walt (February 1, 2012). "The Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale" (PDF). Miami, Florida: National Hurricane Center. p. 3. Retrieved June 15, 2016.
  17. 1 2 3 4 5 Pierce, Charles H. (August 1939). "The Meteorological History of the Hurricane of Sept. 21, 1938". Monthly Weather Review. 67 (8). Washington, D.C.: American Meteorological Society: 237–285. doi: 10.1175/1520-0493(1939)67<237:TMHOTN>2.0.CO;2 .
  18. ↑ National Weather Service Weather Forecast Office, New York; Roger K. Brickner (2015). "Timeline of Events from 'The Long Island Express: Tracking the Hurricane of 1938'". The Great New England Hurricane of 1938. Upton, New York: National Weather Service. Retrieved June 15, 2016.
  19. ↑ National Weather Service Weather Forecast Office Boston, Massachusetts. "The Great New England Hurricane of 1938". NWS Boston – The Great Hurricane of 1938. Boston, MA: National Weather Service. Retrieved June 15, 2016.
  20. ↑ Van Lenten, Christine, ed. (November 2014). "4.1" (PDF). NYC's Risk Landscape: A Guide to Hazard Mitigation (Report). New York, New York: City of New York. p. 49. Retrieved June 15, 2016. September 1938: The most powerful hurricane on record to ever impact the region makes landfall near Fire Island.
  21. ↑ Goldenburg, Stan (June 1, 2016). "A3) What is a super-typhoon? What is a major hurricane? What is an intense hurricane?". Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ). 4.9. Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory. Retrieved June 15, 2016.
  22. 1 2 Landsea, Chris (June 1, 2016). "E23) What is the complete list of continental U.S. landfalling hurricanes?". Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ). 4.9. Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory. Retrieved June 15, 2016.
  23. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 "The Great New England Hurricane of 1938 – History". US Department of Commerce, NOAA, National Weather Service. Retrieved February 9, 2017.
  24. ↑ Goudsouzian, pp. 11–12, 57
  25. ↑ "Hurricanes in History". United States National Hurricane Center.
  26. ↑ "Ranked Using 2005 Inflation, Population, and Wealth Normalization".
  27. ↑ "The Deadliest Atlantic Tropical Cyclones, 1492–1996".
  28. 1 2 "Damage Caused by Storm". Archived from the original on April 30, 2006. Retrieved April 30, 2006..
  29. ↑ "New England 'Blowdown' Timber and Forest Fire Hazard Caused by the Sept. 1938 Hurricane". Archived from the original on September 22, 2013. Retrieved September 22, 2013.
  30. ↑ "The Great Hurricane of 1938 – Peeling Back the Bark". June 8, 2010.
  31. 1 2 Rather, John (August 28, 2005). "Dreading a Replay of 1938 Hurricane". New York Times. Retrieved November 28, 2012.
  32. 1 2 Flotteron, Nicole. "1938 'Long Island Express' Hurricane: could it happen again?". Home and Garden, Hampton.com. Retrieved November 28, 2012.
  33. ↑ R, J. "The Long Island Express". weatherwise.
  34. ↑ "One for the Ages: The Hurricane of 1938 Battered New England's Woods 75 Years Ago". Northern Woodlands. Autumn 2013. Retrieved February 9, 2017.
  35. 1 2 The Weather Doctor Almanac 2008 The Great Hurricane of 1938: The Long Island Express Part 2. Retrieved August 20, 2013.
  36. ↑ "HABS No. NJ-1032" (PDF). National Park Service. Summer 1991. Retrieved May 19, 2018.
  37. ↑ Goudsouzian, p. 13
  38. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 "The Great New England Hurricane of 1938". US Department of Commerce, NOAA, National Weather Service. Retrieved February 9, 2017.
  39. 1 2 3 "Catastrophe: Abyss from the Indies". Time. October 3, 1938. Retrieved February 9, 2017– via content.time.com.
  40. 1 2 "The Hurricane of 1938" . Retrieved February 9, 2017.
  41. ↑ "Truck Firms Halt the Mayor's Plan; Drivers Accept It". The New York Times. September 27, 1938. ISSN   0362-4331 . Retrieved July 6, 2023.
  42. ↑ "Truck Strike's End To Be Asked Today; Relief Food Moved". The New York Times. September 19, 1938. ISSN   0362-4331 . Retrieved July 6, 2023.
  43. ↑ "Mayor Proclaims Truck Emergency; Uses City Fleet; Sanitation Vehicles Manned by Strikers After Employers Reject City Hall Proposal". The New York Times. September 28, 1938. Retrieved June 7, 2023.
  44. ↑ "22 Sep 1938, p. 9 – The Brooklyn Daily Eagle at Newspapers.com" . Retrieved February 9, 2017.
  45. ↑ Goudsouzian, pp. 13–14
  46. 1 2 3 4 5 "WGBH American Experience. The Hurricane of '38". PBS . Retrieved February 9, 2017.
  47. ↑ "Hurricane Loss Put at least $100,000,000 Long Island Press January 2, 1939" (PDF).
  48. ↑ "Hurricane of 1938 May Still Be the Champ". September 3, 2010. Retrieved February 9, 2017.
  49. ↑ Oliver Peterson (June 13, 2007). "Push is on to rebuild church steeple". East Hampton Press.
  50. ↑ "Weather History of the '38 Hurricane". Archived from the original on May 13, 2006. Retrieved May 13, 2006..
  51. 1 2 Baker, Joe. "I was never so scared". NewportRI.com l News and information for Newport, Rhode Island. Archived from the original on September 20, 2018. Retrieved October 9, 2024.
  52. ↑ "Prudence Island Light history" . Retrieved February 9, 2017.
  53. ↑ "The Charter of Brown University" (PDF). Brown University. 1945. p. 31. Retrieved April 10, 2017.
  54. 1 2 Jarvinen, Brian. "Storm Tides in Twelve Tropical Cyclones" (PDF). NOAA.
  55. 1 2 Bowman, Dennis (September 5, 2015). "Dennis Bowman: '38 Hurricane was no '100-year storm'". The Providence Journal. Retrieved September 8, 2015.
  56. ↑ "Fox Point Hurricane Barrier Facts". providenceri.com. Retrieved September 19, 2013.
  57. ↑ Glink, Ilyce (July 12, 2011). "Katharine Hepburn's Beloved Summer Home for Sale". CBS Money Watch.
  58. ↑ Hurricane of 1938: Connecticut's Worst Disaster, Connecticuthistory.org, September 21, 2019
  59. ↑ "Daily Discussion and Climate Summary – Anniversary of Great New England Hurricane of 1938". Blue Hill Observatory . Milton, Massachusetts. September 21, 2010. Retrieved August 20, 2013.
  60. ↑ "September 21, 1938: Storm of the Century hits Boston's Braves Field". Society for American Baseball Research . Retrieved September 21, 2024.
  61. ↑ "The Great Hurricane of 1938: The Long Island Express, Part 3". The Weather Doctor Almanac. 2008. Retrieved August 20, 2013.
  62. ↑ Goudsouzian, page 5
  63. ↑ Nancy Bazilchuk (March 29, 1999). "Fire, floods, flu: Natural disasters in Vermont – At nature's mercy: Vermonters prove their mettle through floods, flu, and blizzards". The Burlington Free Press . Retrieved August 19, 2013.
  64. ↑ Cotterly, Wayne (October 21, 2012). "New England Hurricane of 1938". Archived from the original on March 1, 2012. Retrieved March 1, 2012.
  65. ↑ "Long Island Express Hurricane – September 1938". NOAA . Retrieved August 20, 2013.
  66. ↑ Nicholas K. Coch (2005). "Hurricane Hazards in the Northeast – A Re-appraisal based on recent research". Fairfield University. Archived from the original on September 4, 2006. Retrieved May 20, 2009.
  67. ↑ Staff Writer (September 7, 2005). "History of Tropical Cyclones in Canada". Canadian Hurricane Centre. Archived from the original on October 2, 2006. Retrieved May 20, 2009.

Bibliography

Further reading

1938 New England hurricane
1938 hurricane September 21, 1938 weather map.jpg
Weather map from September 21 depicting the storm off the Mid-Atlantic coast
Preceded by
1928 Okeechobee
(San Felipe Segundo)
(Tied with 1926 Great Miami)
 Costliest Atlantic hurricanes on Record
1938 		Succeeded by

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">1961 Atlantic hurricane season</span>

The 1961 Atlantic hurricane season was a very active Atlantic hurricane season, with an accumulated cyclone energy (ACE) total of 189, the highest since 1950 and until being surpassed by 1995. The season, however, was an average one in terms of named storms. The season featured eight hurricanes and a well above average number of five major hurricanes. It was previously thought that the season had a record-tying seven major hurricanes, before the Atlantic hurricane reanalysis project downgraded two storms in 2019. Two Category 5 hurricanes were seen in 1961, making it one of only eight Atlantic hurricane seasons to feature multiple Category 5 hurricanes in one season. The season started on June 15, and ended on November 15. These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the Atlantic basin. The first system, an operationally unclassified tropical depression, formed offshore east Central Florida on June 10, but dissipated a few days later. Next, Hurricane Anna developed in the eastern Caribbean Sea near the Windward Islands on July 20. It brought minor damage to the islands in, as well as wind and flood impacts to Central America after striking Belize as a hurricane. Anna caused one death and about $300,000 (1961 USD) in damage. Activity went dormant for nearly a month and a half, until Hurricane Betsy developed on September 2. Betsy peaked as a Category 4 hurricane, but remained at sea and caused no impact.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hurricane Gloria</span> Category 4 Atlantic hurricane in 1985

Hurricane Gloria was a powerful hurricane that caused significant damage along the east coast of the United States and in Atlantic Canada during the 1985 Atlantic hurricane season. It was the first significant tropical cyclone to strike the northeastern United States since Hurricane Agnes in 1972 and the first major storm to affect New York City and Long Island directly since Hurricane Donna in 1960. Gloria was a Cape Verde hurricane originating from a tropical wave on September 16 in the eastern Atlantic Ocean. After remaining a weak tropical cyclone for several days, Gloria intensified into a hurricane on September 22 north of the Lesser Antilles. During that time, the storm had moved generally westward, although it turned to the northwest due to a weakening of the ridge. Gloria quickly intensified on September 24, and the next day reached peak winds of 145 mph (233 km/h). The hurricane weakened before striking the Outer Banks of North Carolina on September 27. Later that day, Gloria made two subsequent landfalls on Long Island and across the coastline of western Connecticut, before becoming extratropical on September 28 over New England. The remnants moved through Atlantic Canada and went on to impact Western Europe, eventually dissipating on October 4.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">1954 Atlantic hurricane season</span>

The 1954 Atlantic hurricane season was an above-average Atlantic hurricane season in terms of named storms, with 16 forming. Overall, the season resulted in $751.6 million in damage, the most of any season at the time. The season officially began on June 15, and nine days later the first named storm developed. Hurricane Alice developed in the Gulf of Mexico and moved inland along the Rio Grande, producing significant precipitation and record flooding that killed 55 people. Activity was slow until late August; only Barbara, a minimal tropical storm, developed in July. In the span of two weeks, hurricanes Carol and Edna followed similar paths before both striking New England as major hurricanes. The latter became the costliest hurricane in Maine's history.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">1945 Atlantic hurricane season</span>

The 1945 Atlantic hurricane season produced multiple landfalling tropical cyclones. It officially began on June 16 and lasted until October 31, dates delimiting the period when a majority of storms were perceived to form in the Atlantic Ocean. A total of 11 systems were documented, including a late-season cyclone retroactively added a decade later. Five of the eleven systems intensified into hurricanes, and two further attained their peaks as major hurricanes. Activity began with the formation of a tropical storm in the Caribbean on June 20, which then made landfalls in Florida and North Carolina at hurricane intensity, causing one death and at least $75,000 in damage. In late August, a Category 3 hurricane on the modern-day Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale struck the Texas coastline, with 3 deaths and $20.1 million in damage. The most powerful hurricane of the season, reaching Category 4 intensity, wrought severe damage throughout the Bahamas and East Coast of the United States, namely Florida, in mid-September; 26 people were killed and damage reached $60 million. A hurricane moved ashore the coastline of Belize in early October, causing one death, while the final cyclone of the year resulted in 5 deaths and $2 million in damage across Cuba and the Bahamas two weeks later. Overall, 36 people were killed and damage reached at least $82.85 million.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">1940 Atlantic hurricane season</span>

The 1940 Atlantic hurricane season was a generally average period of tropical cyclogenesis in 1940. Though the season had no official bounds, most tropical cyclone activity occurred during August and September. Throughout the year, fourteen tropical cyclones formed, of which nine reached tropical storm intensity; six were hurricanes. None of the hurricanes reached major hurricane intensity. Tropical cyclones that did not approach populated areas or shipping lanes, especially if they were relatively weak and of short duration, may have remained undetected. Because technologies such as satellite monitoring were not available until the 1960s, historical data on tropical cyclones from this period are often not reliable. As a result of a reanalysis project which analyzed the season in 2012, an additional hurricane was added to HURDAT. The year's first tropical storm formed on May 19 off the northern coast of Hispaniola. At the time, this was a rare occurrence, as only four other tropical disturbances were known to have formed prior during this period; since then, reanalysis of previous seasons has concluded that there were more than four tropical cyclones in May before 1940. The season's final system was a tropical disturbance situated in the Greater Antilles, which dissipated on November 8.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">1938 Atlantic hurricane season</span>

The 1938 Atlantic hurricane season produced fifteen tropical cyclones, of which nine strengthened into tropical storms. Four storms intensified into hurricanes. Two of those four became major hurricanes, the equivalent of a Category 3 or greater storm on the modern day Saffir–Simpson scale. The hurricane season officially began on June 16 and ended on November 15. In 2012, as part of the Atlantic hurricane reanalysis project, meteorologists identified a previously undocumented January hurricane and September tropical storm while fine-tuning the meteorological histories of several others. However, given scant observations from ships and weather stations, significant uncertainty of tropical cyclone tracks, intensity, and duration remains, particularly for those storms that stayed at sea.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">1923 Atlantic hurricane season</span>

The 1923 Atlantic hurricane season featured 11 tropical cyclones, 9 of which intensified into tropical storms, the most since 1916. Four of the tropical storms intensified into hurricanes, one of which reached major hurricane intensity—Category 3 or higher on the modern-day Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale. No tropical storms or hurricanes formed in or entered the Caribbean Sea. The first known system, a tropical depression, formed on June 19, while the last known system, a tropical storm, transitioned into an extratropical cyclone on October 26. A total of Additionally, an October tropical depression was previously recognized as a tropical storm until reanalysis in 2009, while the first and third tropical storms were added to the Atlantic hurricane database that year. The sixth, seven, and eight storms as well as the October tropical depression existed simultaneously on October 16.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">1921 Atlantic hurricane season</span>

The 1921 Atlantic hurricane season was an active hurricane season, with 12 tropical cyclones forming. Among them, seven became tropical storms, of which five strengthened into hurricanes. Furthermore, two of these strengthened into a major hurricane, Category 3 or higher on the modern-day Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale, the most since the 1917 season. The first system, a tropical depression, developed on June 1, while the last, a tropical storm, dissipated on November 25. Of note, three tropical cyclones co-existed with another during the season.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hurricane Carol</span> Category 3 Atlantic hurricane in 1954

Hurricane Carol was among the worst tropical cyclones on record to affect the states of Connecticut and Rhode Island in the United States. It developed from a tropical wave near the Bahamas on August 25, 1954, and slowly strengthened as it moved northwestward. On August 27, Carol intensified to reach winds of 105 mph (169 km/h), but weakened as its motion turned to a northwest drift. A strong trough of low pressure turned the hurricane northeastward, and Carol later intensified into a major hurricane. While paralleling the Mid-Atlantic and Southeastern United States, the storm produced strong winds and rough seas that caused minor coastal flooding and slight damage to houses in North Carolina, Virginia, Washington, D.C., Delaware, and New Jersey. The well-organized hurricane accelerated north-northeastward and made landfall on eastern Long Island, New York, and then over eastern Connecticut on August 31 with sustained winds estimated at 110-mph and a barometric pressure near 956 mb. Carol later transitioned into an extratropical cyclone over New Hampshire, on August 31, 1954.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">1900 Atlantic hurricane season</span>

The 1900 Atlantic hurricane season featured the Galveston hurricane, the deadliest natural disaster in the history of the United States. A total of 10 tropical cyclones formed, seven of which intensified into a tropical storm. Three of those made landfall in the United States. The first system was initially observed over the central Atlantic Ocean on January 17, while the final storm transitioned into an extratropical cyclone on October 28. These dates fall within the period with the most tropical cyclone activity in the Atlantic. Every storm of the season except the seventh system existed simultaneously with another tropical cyclone.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">1897 Atlantic hurricane season</span>

The 1897 Atlantic hurricane season was an inactive season, featuring only six known tropical cyclones, four of which made landfall. There were three hurricanes, none of which strengthened into major hurricanes, which are Category 3 or higher on the modern-day Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale. The first system was initially observed south of Cape Verde on August 31, an unusually late date. The storm was the strongest of the season, peaking as a Category 2 hurricane with winds of 100 mph (155 km/h). While located well north of the Azores, rough seas by the storm sunk a ship, killing all 45 crewmen. A second storm was first spotted in the Straits of Florida on September 10. It strengthened into a hurricane and tracked northwestward across the Gulf of Mexico, striking Louisiana shortly before dissipating on September 13. This storm caused 29 deaths and $150,000 (1897 USD) in damage.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">1893 Atlantic hurricane season</span>

The 1893 Atlantic hurricane season ran through the summer and the first half of fall in 1893. The 1893 season was fairly active, with 12 tropical storms forming, 10 of which became hurricanes. Of those, five became major hurricanes. This season proved to be a very deadly season, with two different hurricanes each causing over 2,000 deaths in the United States; at the time, the season was the deadliest in U.S. history. The season was one of two seasons on record to see four Atlantic hurricanes active simultaneously, along with the 1998 Atlantic hurricane season. Additionally, August 15, 1893 was the only time since the advent of modern record keeping that three storms have formed on the same day until 2020 saw Wilfred, Alpha, and Beta forming on the same day; and for the first time, there were two high-intensity hurricanes simultaneously in one month of August, and this was not repeated until the year 2023.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hurricane Esther</span> Category 5 Atlantic hurricane in 1961

Hurricane Esther was the first large tropical cyclone to be discovered by satellite imagery. The fifth tropical cyclone, named storm, and hurricane of the 1961 Atlantic hurricane season, Esther developed from an area of disturbed weather hundreds of miles west-southwest of the southernmost Cape Verde Islands on September 10. Moving northwestward, the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Esther on September 11, before reaching hurricane intensity on the following day. Early on September 13, Esther curved westward and deepened into a major hurricane. The storm remained a Category 3 hurricane for about four days and gradually moved in a west-northwestward direction. Late on September 17, Esther strengthened into a Category 5 hurricane with sustained winds of 160 mph (260 km/h) on September 18. The storm curved north-northeastward on September 19, while offshore of North Carolina. Esther began to weaken while approaching New England and fell to Category 3 intensity on September 21. The storm turned eastward early on the following day, and rapidly weakened to a tropical storm.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">1888 Atlantic hurricane season</span>

The 1888 Atlantic hurricane season ran through the summer and the first half of fall in 1888. In the 1888 Atlantic season there were two tropical storms, four hurricanes, and two major hurricanes. However, in the absence of modern satellite and other remote-sensing technologies, only storms that affected populated land areas or encountered ships at sea are known, so the actual total could be higher. An undercount bias of zero to six tropical cyclones per year between 1851 and 1885 and zero to four per year between 1886 and 1910 has been estimated.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hurricane Gustav (2002)</span> Category 2 Atlantic hurricane

Hurricane Gustav was a Category 2 hurricane that paralleled the East Coast of the United States in September 2002 during the 2002 Atlantic hurricane season. It was the seventh named storm and first hurricane of the season. Initially a subtropical depression north of the Bahamas, Gustav passed just to the east of the Outer Banks, North Carolina as a tropical storm before traveling northeastward, making two landfalls in Atlantic Canada as a Category 1 hurricane. The storm was responsible for one death and $100,000 in damage, mostly in North Carolina. The interaction between Gustav and a non-tropical system produced strong winds that caused an additional $240,000 (2002 USD) in damage in New England, but this damage was not directly attributed to the hurricane.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hurricane Bob</span> Category 3 Atlantic hurricane in 1991

Hurricane Bob was one of the costliest hurricanes in New England history. The second named storm and first hurricane of the 1991 Atlantic hurricane season, Bob developed from an area of low pressure near The Bahamas on August 16. The depression steadily intensified, and became Tropical Storm Bob late on August 16. Bob curved north-northwestward as a tropical storm, but re-curved to the north-northeast after becoming a hurricane on August 17. As such, it brushed the Outer Banks of North Carolina on August 18 and August 19, and subsequently intensified into a major hurricane. After peaking in intensity with maximum sustained winds of 115 mph (185 km/h), Bob weakened slightly as it approached the coast of New England.

The 1888 Louisiana hurricane was a major hurricane that caused significant flooding and wind damage to the Mississippi River Delta and the Mississippi Valley in late August 1888. It was the third tropical cyclone and second hurricane of the 1888 Atlantic hurricane season.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">2021 Atlantic hurricane season</span>

The 2021 Atlantic hurricane season was the third-most active Atlantic hurricane season on record in terms of number of tropical cyclones, although many of them were weak and short-lived. With 21 named storms forming, it became the second season in a row and third overall in which the designated 21-name list of storm names was exhausted. Seven of those storms strengthened into a hurricane, four of which reached major hurricane intensity, which is slightly above-average. The season officially began on June 1 and ended on November 30. These dates historically describe the period in each year when most Atlantic tropical cyclones form. However, subtropical or tropical cyclogenesis is possible at any time of the year, as demonstrated by the development of Tropical Storm Ana on May 22, making this the seventh consecutive year in which a storm developed outside of the official season.

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