The 1938 New England Hurricane (also referred to as the Great New England Hurricane and the Long Island Express Hurricane)[1][2] was one of the deadliest and most destructive tropical cyclones to strike the United States. The storm formed near the coast of Africa on September 9,becoming a Category 5 hurricane on the Saffir–Simpson hurricane scale,before making landfall as a Category 3 hurricane[3] on Long Island on Wednesday,September 21. It is estimated that the hurricane killed 682 people,[4] damaged or destroyed more than 57,000 homes,and caused property losses estimated at $306 million ($4.7 billion in 2024).[5][6] Multiple other sources,however,mention that the 1938 hurricane might have really been a more powerful Category 4,having winds similar to Hurricanes Hugo,Harvey,Frederic and Gracie when it ran through Long Island and New England.[7][8] Also,numerous others estimate the real damage between $347 million and almost $410 million.[9] Damaged trees and buildings were still seen in the affected areas as late as 1951.[10] It remains the most powerful and deadliest hurricane in recorded New England history,perhaps eclipsed in landfall intensity only by the Great Colonial Hurricane of 1635.[11]
At the time,roughly half of the 1938 New England hurricane's existence went unnoticed. The Atlantic hurricane reanalysis in 2012 concluded that the storm developed into a tropical depression on September 9 off the coast of West Africa,but the United States Weather Bureau was unaware that a tropical cyclone existed until September 16;by then,it was already a well-developed hurricane and had tracked westward toward the Sargasso Sea. It reached hurricane strength on September 15 and continued to strengthen to a peak intensity of 160mph (260km/h) near The Bahamas four days later,making it a Category 5-equivalent hurricane.[note 1] The storm was propelled northward,rapidly paralleling the East Coast before making landfalls on Long Island and Connecticut as a Category 3-equivalent hurricane on September 21. After moving inland,it transitioned into an extratropical cyclone and dissipated over Ontario on September 23.
Meteorological history
Map plotting the storm's track and intensity,according to the Saffir–Simpson scale
The Atlantic hurricane reanalysis project analyzed the 1938 Atlantic hurricane season in 2012,[13] and Weather Bureau forecaster Ivan Ray Tannehill noted that the knowledge of the storm's existence at the time remained tenuous until September 17 when the cyclone had already increased to a hurricane.[14] Based on land and marine observations,[15] the reanalysis project concluded that the 1938 hurricane began as a tropical depression just off the coast of West Africa at 12:00 UTC (8 a.m. Eastern Standard Time) on September 9, becoming the sixth tropical cyclone of the season. The depression gradually strengthened, becoming a tropical storm less than a day after tropical cyclogenesis. It was inferred to have reached hurricane intensity over the central Atlantic by September 15,[16] though ship observations became increasingly sparse as the cyclone tracked farther away from land.[15] The first definitive indication of a tropical cyclone at sea was a report from the Brazilian ship SS Alegrete which documented a barometric pressure of 958 mbar (hPa; 28.29 inHg) within hurricane-force winds on September 17.[14][15] Based on this observation, the hurricane had maximum sustained winds of 125mph (201km/h),[15] making it the equivalent of a high-end Category 3 hurricane on the Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale.[17]
The hurricane continued to slowly strengthen and track westward at around 20mph (32km/h) about the southern periphery of a subtropical ridge centered over the Sargasso Sea.[14][18] On September 18, a strong extratropical cyclone developed just west of Chicago, generating a strong influx of cooler air from Canada into the eastern United States and thus forming a sharp cold front over the region; this frontal boundary resulted in a channel of moist, tropical air being steered northwards into New England.[18] At 18:00 UTC (2 p.m. EST) on September 19, the tropical cyclone strengthened further into a Category 5-equivalent hurricane with sustained winds of 160mph (260km/h) while north of the Turks and Caicos;[16] this figure remained unchanged in reanalysis and serves as the storm's peak strength, although the reanalysis project noted that "considerable uncertainty" remains regarding the magnitude of the storm's maximum intensity at sea.[15] Concurrently, the hurricane began to interact with the cold front over the East Coast, causing the tropical cyclone to curve northward towards the northeastern United States;[18][19] the presence of the subtropical ridge to the east and the stationary nature of the frontal boundary prevented the storm from continuing to curve out to sea.[18]
Surface weather map depicting the hurricane's first landfall on Long Island.
As the hurricane accelerated northward, it gradually weakened.[16][18][20] On the morning of September 21, it passed roughly 75mi (121km) east of Cape Hatteras. At 12:00 UTC (8 a.m. EST) that day, the storm was estimated to have a barometric pressure of 940mbar (940hPa; 28inHg); this is the hurricane's lowest documented pressure. At 19:45 UTC (3:45p.m. EST), the hurricane made landfall on Long Island over Bellport, New York with maximum sustained winds of 120mph (190km/h) and a pressure of 941mbar (941hPa; 27.8inHg), making it the strongest tropical cyclone to hit the New York City area.[21] It was moving rapidly northward at 47mph (76km/h), enhancing the intensity of the winds east of the center; in addition, its forward motion displaced its center of circulation 17mi (27km) away from the point of minimum barometric pressure. Weather Bureau forecaster Charles Pierce argued that the hurricane became extratropical off of the Outer Banks, though Charles J. Neumann, Frances P. Ho, and the Atlantic hurricane reanalysis project suggested that it was tropical but in the process of extratropical transition at landfall. Afterwards, it quickly tracked across Long Island and Long Island Sound before making a second and final landfall near New Haven, Connecticut as a slightly weaker hurricane with winds of 115mph (185km/h), making it one of only three recorded tropical cyclones to hit Connecticut as major hurricanes since 1900.[note 2][15][23] The storm steadily weakened, becoming fully extratropical over Vermont by 00:00 UTC on September 22 (September 21, 8 p.m. EST). Following this transition, the remnants continued to weaken before they dissipated over southeastern Ontario on September 23.[16]
Development of synoptic features contributing to the track and extratropical transition of the 1938 New England hurricane
The strengthening of the subtropical ridge over Bermuda steers the hurricane west, while an extratropical low forms over the Great Lakes on September 18
The extratropical low pulls in cold air from the north, allowing it to strengthen and develop a cold front over the Eastern United States on September 19
The hurricane begins to be pulled northward by the quasi-stationary cold front on September 20
Extratropical transition gradually begins as the hurricane interacts with the frontal boundary on September 21
Following landfall, the storm merges with the trough of low-pressure, isolating it from tropical air and completing extratropical transition on September 22
Forecasting the storm
In 1938, United States forecasting lagged behind forecasting in Europe, where new techniques were being used to analyze air masses, taking into account the influence of fronts. A confidential report was released by the United States Forest Service, the parent agency of the United States Weather Bureau. It described the weather bureau's forecasting as "a sorry state of affairs" where forecasters had poor training and systematic planning was not used, and where forecasters had to "scrape by" to get information wherever they could. The Jacksonville, Florida, office of the weather bureau issued a warning on September 19 that a hurricane might hit Florida. Residents and authorities made extensive preparations, as they had endured the Labor Day Hurricane three years earlier. When the storm turned north, the office issued warnings for the Carolina coast and transferred authority to the bureau's headquarters in Washington.
At 9:00 am EDT on September 21, the Washington office issued northeast storm warnings north of Atlantic City and south of Block Island, Rhode Island, and southeast storm warnings from Block Island to Eastport, Maine.[24] The advisory, however, underestimated the storm's intensity and said that it was farther south than it actually was.[24] The office had yet to forward any information about the hurricane to the New York City office.[24] At 10:00 am EDT, the bureau downgraded the hurricane to a tropical storm. The 11:30 am advisory mentioned gale-force winds but nothing about a tropical storm or hurricane.[24]
That day, 28 year-old rookie Charles Pierce was standing in for two veteran meteorologists. He concluded that the storm would be squeezed between a high-pressure area located to the west and a high-pressure area to the east, and that it would be forced to ride up a trough of low pressure into New England. A noon meeting was called and Pierce presented his conclusion, but he was overruled by "celebrated" chief forecaster Charles Mitchell and his senior staff. In Boston, meteorologist E.B. Rideout told his WEEI radio listeners – to the skepticism of his peers – that the hurricane would hit New England.[25] At 2:00 pm, hurricane-force gusts were occurring on Long Island's South Shore and near hurricane-force gusts on the coast of Connecticut. The Washington office issued an advisory saying that the storm was 75mi (120km) east-southeast of Atlantic City and would pass over Long Island and Connecticut. Re-analysis of the storm suggests that the hurricane was farther north and just 50mi (80km) from Fire Island, and that it was stronger and larger than the advisory stated.[24]
The majority of the storm damage was from storm surge and wind. Damage was estimated at $308million, the equivalent of $5.1billion adjusted for inflation in 2016 dollars, making it among the most costly hurricanes to strike the U.S. mainland.[26] It is estimated that, if an identical hurricane had struck in 2005, it would have caused $39.2billion in damage due to changes in population and infrastructure.[27]
Approximately 600 people died in the storm in New England, most in Rhode Island, and up to 100 people elsewhere in the path of the storm.[28] An additional 708 people were reported injured.[29]
In total, 4,500 cottages, farms, and other homes were reported destroyed and 25,000 homes were damaged. Other damages included 26,000 automobiles destroyed and 20,000 electrical poles toppled. The hurricane also devastated the forests of the Northeast, knocking down an estimated two billion trees in New York and New England.[29] Freshwater flooding was minimal, however, as the quick passage of the storm decreased local rainfall totals, with only a few small areas receiving over 10 inches (250mm).
Over 35% of New England's total forest area was affected. In all, over 2.7billion board feet of trees fell because of the storm, although 1.6billion board feet of the trees were salvaged.[30] The Northeastern Timber Salvage Administration (NETSA) was established to deal with the extreme fire hazard that the fallen timber had created.[31] In many locations, roads from the fallen tree removal were visible decades later, and some became trails still used today.[citation needed] The New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad from New Haven to Providence was particularly hard hit, as countless bridges along the Shore Line were destroyed or flooded, severing rail connections to badly affected towns such as Westerly, Rhode Island.
Due to the lack of technology in 1938, Long Island residents were not warned of the hurricane's arrival,[32] leaving no time to prepare or evacuate.[33] Long Island was struck first, before New England and Quebec, earning the storm the nickname the "Long Island Express."[33] The winds reached up to 150mph (240km/h), with waves surging to around 25–35 feet (7.6–10.7m) high.[34]
Yale and Harvard both owned large forests managed by their forestry departments, but both forests were wiped out by the hurricane. However, Yale had a backup forest at Great Mountain in northwestern Connecticut which was spared from the totality of the damages, and they were able to keep their forestry program running, which maintains operation today. Harvard's program, however, was reduced as a result.[35]
New Jersey
The western side of the hurricane caused sustained tropical storm-force winds, high waves, and storm surge along the Jersey Shore[36] and destroyed much of the boardwalk in Atlantic City. The Brigantine Bridge was destroyed over Absecon Inlet between Atlantic City and Brigantine, New Jersey.[37] The surge inundated several coastal communities; Wildwood was under 3 feet (1m) of water at the height of the storm, and the boardwalk was destroyed in Bay Head and dozens of cottages washed into the ocean. Crops sustained wind damage.[38] The maximum recorded wind gust was 70mph (110km/h) at Sandy Hook.[36]
New York City and western Long Island
The metropolitan area escaped the worst of the wind and storm surge because it was hit by the storm's weaker western side. Winds were recorded at 60mph (97km/h) at Central Park, Battery Park recorded sustained winds of 70mph (110km/h) with gusts to 80mph (130km/h), and a gust of 90mph (140km/h) was recorded 500ft (150m) above ground at the Daily News Building. Winds were estimated at 120mph (190km/h) on top of the Empire State Building.[39] The highest winds were from the north to northwest on the back side of the storm.[40] The storm surge was 8.5ft (2.6m) at the Battery and the Mean Low Water storm tide was 16.75ft (5.11m) at Willets Point.[39] In New York Harbor, the waters rose 7ft (2.1m) in a half-hour.[39]
In New York City and Long Island, schools were dismissed early.[24][41] Extensive street flooding occurred because debris blocked drains.[24] The East River flowed three blocks and flooded a Consolidated Edison (Con Ed) plant at 133rd Street, causing power to fail in Manhattan north of 59th Street and in the Bronx for several minutes to a few hours. Railroad and ferry services were suspended for a time. The Staten Island Ferry boat Knickerbocker got stuck in the terminal with 200 passengers aboard.[24][40] Bridges and tunnels into Manhattan were closed until the following afternoon. 95% of Nassau County lost power, where floods brought traffic to a halt.[40]
During the hurricane, starting before it hit and continuing after, a citywide trucker strike occurred across both NYC and New Jersey, this led to some complications to the relief effort. However, the unions made critical exceptions for relief supplies. Moving food supplies to relief depots, ballots for the New York primary before the hurricane hit while people were evacuating, and manning 1,000 relief sanitation trucks deployed by Mayor La Guardia with supplies after the hurricane had hit.[42][43][44]
In Manhasset Bay, almost 400 boats were ripped from their moorings and smashed or sunk, with more than 100 washing up on the beach by the Port Washington Yacht Club. Similar scenes occurred in other locations on the north shore. The J. P. Morgan estate in Glen Cove was heavily damaged. The wife of New York City mayor Fiorello La Guardia was forced to wait out the storm on the second floor of their Northport cottage. Mitchel Field army airfield was buffeted by winds of nearly 100mph (160km/h) and was under knee-deep water.[45] In Williston Park, residents of 50 homes needed to be rescued by rowboat when heavy rain the previous few days combined with the rain from the hurricane to overflow a pond.[4][41][46][47][48][49]
Eastern Long Island
Eastern Long Island experienced the worst of the storm. The Dune Road area of Westhampton Beach was obliterated, resulting in 29 deaths. There were 21 other deaths through the rest of the east end of Long Island. The storm surge temporarily turned Montauk into an island as it flooded across the South Fork at Napeague and obliterated the tracks of the Long Island Rail Road.
Long Island was hit hard being exposed to the storm due to its shorelines. The estimated storm tide was 15ft (4.6m) in this region. A mean low water storm tide of 8ft (2.4m) was recorded at Port Jefferson.[39] About 50 people perished in the storm's wake.[32] All the shore lines were very vulnerable to the high winds and flooding, and anyone near the shores was directly in harm's way.
Ten new inlets were created on eastern Long Island.[39] The surge rearranged the sand at the Cedar Point Lighthouse so that the island became connected to what is now Cedar Point County Park. The surging water created the Shinnecock Inlet by carving out a large section of barrier island separating Shinnecock Bay from the Atlantic. The storm toppled the landmark steeple of the Old Whaler's Church,[50] which was the tallest building in Sag Harbor. The steeple has not been rebuilt.
Wading River suffered substantial damage. The storm blew down the movie theater on Front Street in Greenport on the North Fork of Long Island. The fishing industry was destroyed, as was half of the apple crop.[39]
Block Island was comparatively unaffected by waves,[51] with two fishermen killed, one by drowning, but it was greatly affected by wind, with most barns and farm outbuildings destroyed.[52] The storm surge hit Westerly, Rhode Island at 3:50 pm, resulting in 100 deaths.[53] The tide was higher than usual because of the autumnal equinox and full moon, and the hurricane produced storm tides of 14 to 18 feet (5m) along most of the Connecticut coast, with 18 to 25-foot (8m) tides from New London, Connecticut east to Cape Cod—including the entire coastline of Rhode Island.
The storm surge was especially violent along the Rhode Island shore, sweeping hundreds of summer cottages out to sea. As the surge drove northward through Narragansett Bay, it was restricted by the Bay's funnel shape and rose to 15.8ft (4.8m) above normal spring tides, resulting in more than 13 feet (4.0m) of water in some areas of downtown Providence. Several motorists were drowned in their automobiles.[54] In Jamestown, seven children were killed when their school bus was blown into Mackerel Cove.[55] Mobs looted stores in downtown Providence, often before the flood waters had fully subsided and due in part to the economic difficulties of the Great Depression.
Many homes and structures were destroyed along the coast, as well as many structures inland along the hurricane's path, and entire beach communities were obliterated on the coast. Napatree Point was completely swept away, a small cape that housed nearly 40 families between the Atlantic Ocean and Little Narragansett Bay just off of Watch Hill. Napatree is now a wildlife refuge with no human inhabitants. Concrete staircases and boardwalk bases destroyed by the hurricane can still be found when sand levels are low on some beaches. The boardwalk along Easton's Beach in Newport was completely destroyed by the storm.[55]
A few miles from Conanicut Island, Whale Rock Light was swept off its base and into the waves, killing lighthouse keeper Walter Eberle. His body was never found. The Prudence Island Light suffered a direct blow from the storm surge, which measured 17feet 5inches (5.31m) at Sandy Point. The masonry tower was slightly damaged, but the adjoining light keeper's home was utterly destroyed and washed out to sea. The light keeper's wife and son were both killed, as well as the former light keeper and a couple who left their summer cottages near the lighthouse and sought shelter in what they thought was the sturdier light keeper's home. Light keeper George T. Gustavus was thrown free from the wreckage of the house and was saved by an island resident who held a branch into the water from the cliffs farther down the coast. Gustavus and Milton Chase, the owner of the island's power plant, reactivated the light during the storm by running a cable from the plant to the light and installing a light bulb, marking the first time that it was illuminated with electricity.[56]
The original parchment of the 1764 Charter of Brown University was washed clean of its text when its vault was flooded in a Providence bank.[57]Newport recorded the highest water level of the storm at 11.5 feet (4m) above mean sea level, according to a NOAA study.[58] This storm level is 3 feet (1m) above the SLOSH model of a 100-year storm, and one estimate is that this water level "reflects a storm occurring roughly once every 400 years."[59] A study of sand deposits also gives evidence that this was the strongest hurricane to hit Rhode Island in over 300 years.[58][59] The Fox Point Hurricane Barrier was completed in 1966 because of the massive flooding from the 1938 storm, and from the even higher 14.4-foot (4.4m) storm surge that resulted from 1954's Hurricane Carol, in hopes of preventing extreme storm surges from ever again flooding downtown Providence.[60]
Eastern Connecticut was on the eastern side of the hurricane. Long Island acted as a buffer against large ocean surges, but the waters of Long Island Sound rose to great heights. Small shoreline towns to the east of New Haven experienced much destruction from the water and winds, and the 1938 hurricane holds the record for the worst natural disaster in Connecticut's 350-year history. The mean low-water storm tide was 14.1ft (4.3m) at Stamford, 12.8ft (3.9m) at Bridgeport, and 10.58ft (3.22m) at New London, which remains a record high.[39]
In the shoreline towns of Madison, Clinton, Westbrook, and Old Saybrook, buildings were found as wreckage across coastal roads. Actress Katharine Hepburn waded to safety from her Old Saybrook beach home, narrowly escaping death. She stated in her 1991 book that 95% of her personal belongings were either lost or destroyed, including her first Oscar for her appearance in Morning Glory, which was later found intact.[61] In Old Lyme, beach cottages were flattened or swept away. The NYNH&H passenger train Bostonian became stuck in debris at Stonington. Two passengers drowned while attempting to escape before the crew was able to clear the debris and get the train moving.[24] Along the Stonington shorefront, buildings were swept off their foundations and found two miles (3.2km) inland. Rescuers found live fish and crabs in kitchen drawers and cabinets while searching for survivors in the homes in Mystic.
New London was first swept by the winds and storm surge, after which the waterfront business district caught fire and burned out of control for 10 hours. Stately homes along Ocean Beach were leveled by the storm surge. The permanently anchored 240-ton lightship at the head of New London Harbor was found on a sand bar two miles (3.2km) away. Interior sections of the state experienced widespread flooding as the hurricane's torrential rains fell on soil already saturated from previous storms. The Connecticut River was forced out of its banks, inundating cities and towns from Hartford to Middletown.
Ultimately the storm became the deadliest and costliest storm in Connecticut history.[62]
Massachusetts
Aerial photo of Marchmont in Winchendon Springs, Massachusetts taken during the summer of 1938.Devastated landscape around Marchmont on September 23, 1938
The eye of the storm followed the Connecticut River north into Massachusetts, where the winds and flooding killed 99 people. In Springfield, the river rose six to 10 feet (3m) above flood stage, causing significant damage. Up to 6in (150mm) of rain fell across western Massachusetts, which combined with over 4in (100mm) that had fallen a few days earlier to produce widespread flooding. Flash flooding on the Chicopee River washed away the Chicopee Falls Bridge, while the Connecticut River flooded most of the Willimansett section. Residents of Ware were stranded for days and relied on air-dropped food and medicine. After the flood receded, the town's Main Street was a chasm in which sewer pipes could be seen.
To the east, the surge left Falmouth and New Bedford under eight feet of water. Two-thirds of the boats sank in New Bedford harbor. Several homes were washed away on Atlantic Boulevard in Fall River, and their foundations can still be found on the beach today. The Blue Hill Observatory registered sustained winds of 121mph (195km/h) and a peak gust of 186mph (299km/h), which is the strongest hurricane-related surface wind gust ever recorded in the United States.[63] A 50ft (15m) wave, the tallest of the storm, was recorded at Gloucester.[39]
The storm filled in a former waterway between Winthrop's Point Shirley neighborhood and Boston's Deer Island with sand and other natural earth minerals, creating an additional common border between Winthrop and Boston transforming Deer Island at the peninsula's southern tip into an island by name only.
Vermont
The storm entered Vermont as a Category 1 hurricane at approximately 6:00pm EDT, reaching northern Vermont, Burlington, and Lake Champlain around 8:00pm.[64][47] Hurricane-force winds caused extensive damage to trees, buildings, and power lines. Over 2,000 miles (3,200km) of public roads were blocked, and it took months for crews to reopen some of the roads. In Montpelier, 120 miles (190km) from the nearest coast, salt spray was seen on windows.[65] A train was derailed in Castleton.[47] The storm killed five people in Vermont. Sugar maple groves were damaged.[66] It is the only system on record to have entered the state as a tropical cyclone.
Even though the storm center tracked further west, through Vermont, New Hampshire received considerable damage. As in Vermont, very high winds brought down numerous trees and electric lines, but rainfall totals in New Hampshire were significantly less than those in other states. Only 1 inch (25mm) of rain fell in Concord.[citation needed] Damage at Peterborough was worse, however; total damage there was stated to be $500,000 (1938dollars, $6.5million in 2005), which included the destruction of 10bridges. Much of the lower downtown burned because floodwaters prevented firefighters from reaching and extinguishing the blaze. Other communities also suffered considerable damage to forest resources. In New Hampshire, 13people perished. At Mt. Washington, winds gusted to 163 miles per hour (262km/h) and knocked down part of a trestle on the Cog Railway.[47]
Maine
In Maine, buildings and trees were damaged and power outages occurred. Storm surge was minimal, and winds remained below hurricane strength. The storm did not claim any lives in Maine.[47][67]
Maryland and Delaware
The western periphery of the hurricane brought heavy rain and gusty winds to Delaware and southeastern Maryland.[68] Damage, if any, is believed to have been minimal.
Quebec
As the hurricane was transitioning into an extratropical cyclone, it tracked into southern Quebec. By the time the system initially crossed into Canada, it continued to produce heavy rain and very strong winds, but interaction with land had caused the system to weaken significantly. Still, many trees were blown down.[69] Otherwise, damage in this region was minimal.[70]
↑ An Actuary Reads the Newspaper(PDF). New York Annual Meeting October 18–21, 1998. Record of the Society of Actuaries. Vol.24, no.3. Retrieved October 10, 2021.
↑ Lefebvre, Paul (October 19, 2016). "How a hurricane changed New England's forests"(PDF). The Chronicle. Barton, Vermont. pp.B1. review of book: 'Thirty-Eight, The Hurricane that Transformed New England', by Stephen Long 2016
↑ Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory. "Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale". Miami Regional Library. Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved June 15, 2016.
1 2 3 4 5 6 Landsea, Christopher W.; Hagen, Andrew; Bredemeyer, William; Carrasco, Cristina; Glenn, David A.; Santiago, Adrian; Strahan-Sakoskie, Donna; Dickinson, Michael (August 12, 2013). "On-line Supplement for A Reanalysis of the 1931 to 1943 Atlantic Hurricane Database"(PDF). Journal of Climate. Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved June 15, 2016.
↑ National Weather Service Weather Forecast Office Boston, Massachusetts. "The Great New England Hurricane of 1938". NWS Boston - The Great Hurricane of 1938. Boston, Massachusetts: National Weather Service. Retrieved June 15, 2016.
↑ Van Lenten, Christine, ed. (November 2014). "4.1"(PDF). NYC's Risk Landscape: A Guide to Hazard Mitigation (Report). New York, New York: City of New York. p.49. Retrieved June 15, 2016. September 1938: The most powerful hurricane on record to ever impact the region makes landfall near Fire Island.
1 2 Landsea, Chris (June 1, 2016). "E23) What is the complete list of continental U.S. landfalling hurricanes?". Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ). 4.9. Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory. Retrieved June 15, 2016.
Long, Stephen (2016). Thirty-Eight, The Hurricane that Transformed New England. Yale University Press. ISBN978-0-300-20951-8.
Further reading
Aviles, Lourdes B. (2012). Taken by Storm, 1938: A Social and Meteorological History of the Great New England Hurricane. American Meteorological Society. ISBN978-1-878220-37-0.
The 1961 Atlantic hurricane season was a very active Atlantic hurricane season, with an accumulated cyclone energy (ACE) total of 189. The season, however, was an average one in terms of named storms. The season featured eight hurricanes and a well above average number of five major hurricanes. It was previously thought that the season had a record-tying seven major hurricanes, before the Atlantic hurricane reanalysis project downgraded two storms in 2019. Two Category 5 hurricanes were seen in 1961, making it one of only seven Atlantic hurricane seasons to feature multiple Category 5 hurricanes in one season. The season started on June 15, and ended on November 15. These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the Atlantic basin. The first system, an operationally unclassified tropical depression, formed offshore east Central Florida on June 10, but dissipated a few days later. Next, Hurricane Anna developed in the eastern Caribbean Sea near the Windward Islands on July 20. It brought minor damage to the islands, as well as wind and flood impacts to Central America after striking Belize as a hurricane. Anna caused one death and about $300,000 (1961 USD) in damage. Activity went dormant for nearly a month and a half, until Hurricane Betsy developed on September 2. Betsy peaked as a Category 4 hurricane, but remained at sea and caused no impact.
Hurricane Gloria was a powerful hurricane that caused significant damage along the east coast of the United States and in Atlantic Canada during the 1985 Atlantic hurricane season. It was the first significant tropical cyclone to strike the northeastern United States since Hurricane Agnes in 1972 and the first major storm to affect New York City and Long Island directly since Hurricane Donna in 1960. Gloria was a Cape Verde hurricane originating from a tropical wave on September 16 in the eastern Atlantic Ocean. After remaining a weak tropical cyclone for several days, Gloria intensified into a hurricane on September 22 north of the Lesser Antilles. During that time, the storm had moved generally westward, although it turned to the northwest due to a weakening of the ridge. Gloria quickly intensified on September 24, and the next day reached peak winds of 145 mph (233 km/h). The hurricane weakened before striking the Outer Banks of North Carolina on September 27. Later that day, Gloria made two subsequent landfalls on Long Island and across the coastline of western Connecticut, before becoming extratropical on September 28 over New England. The remnants moved through Atlantic Canada and went on to impact Western Europe, eventually dissipating on October 4.
The 1954 Atlantic hurricane season was an above-average Atlantic hurricane season in terms of named storms, with 16 forming. Overall, the season resulted in $751.6 million in damage, the most of any season at the time. The season officially began on June 15, and nine days later the first named storm developed. Hurricane Alice developed in the Gulf of Mexico and moved inland along the Rio Grande, producing significant precipitation and record flooding that killed 55 people. Activity was slow until late August; only Barbara, a minimal tropical storm, developed in July. In the span of two weeks, hurricanes Carol and Edna followed similar paths before both striking New England as major hurricanes. The latter became the costliest hurricane in Maine's history.
The 1945 Atlantic hurricane season produced multiple landfalling tropical cyclones. It officially began on June 16 and lasted until October 31, dates delimiting the period when a majority of storms were perceived to form in the Atlantic Ocean. A total of 11 systems were documented, including a late-season cyclone retroactively added a decade later. Five of the eleven systems intensified into hurricanes, and two further attained their peaks as major hurricanes. Activity began with the formation of a tropical storm in the Caribbean on June 20, which then made landfalls in Florida and North Carolina at hurricane intensity, causing one death and at least $75,000 in damage. In late August, a Category 3 hurricane on the modern-day Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale struck the Texas coastline, with 3 deaths and $20.1 million in damage. The most powerful hurricane of the season, reaching Category 4 intensity, wrought severe damage throughout the Bahamas and East Coast of the United States, namely Florida, in mid-September; 26 people were killed and damage reached $60 million. A hurricane moved ashore the coastline of Belize in early October, causing one death, while the final cyclone of the year resulted in 5 deaths and $2 million in damage across Cuba and the Bahamas two weeks later. Overall, 36 people were killed and damage reached at least $82.85 million.
The 1940 Atlantic hurricane season was a generally average period of tropical cyclogenesis in 1940. Though the season had no official bounds, most tropical cyclone activity occurred during August and September. Throughout the year, fourteen tropical cyclones formed, of which nine reached tropical storm intensity; six were hurricanes. None of the hurricanes reached major hurricane intensity. Tropical cyclones that did not approach populated areas or shipping lanes, especially if they were relatively weak and of short duration, may have remained undetected. Because technologies such as satellite monitoring were not available until the 1960s, historical data on tropical cyclones from this period are often not reliable. As a result of a reanalysis project which analyzed the season in 2012, an additional hurricane was added to HURDAT. The year's first tropical storm formed on May 19 off the northern coast of Hispaniola. At the time, this was a rare occurrence, as only four other tropical disturbances were known to have formed prior during this period; since then, reanalysis of previous seasons has concluded that there were more than four tropical cyclones in May before 1940. The season's final system was a tropical disturbance situated in the Greater Antilles, which dissipated on November 8.
The 1938 Atlantic hurricane season produced fifteen tropical cyclones, of which nine strengthened into tropical storms. Four storms intensified into hurricanes. Two of those four became major hurricanes, the equivalent of a Category 3 or greater storm on the modern day Saffir–Simpson scale. The hurricane season officially began on June 16 and ended on November 15. In 2012, as part of the Atlantic hurricane reanalysis project, meteorologists identified a previously undocumented January hurricane and September tropical storm while fine-tuning the meteorological histories of several others. However, given scant observations from ships and weather stations, significant uncertainty of tropical cyclone tracks, intensity, and duration remains, particularly for those storms that stayed at sea.
The 1937 Atlantic hurricane season was a below-average hurricane season, featuring eleven tropical storms; of these, four became hurricanes. One hurricane reached major hurricane intensity, equivalent to a Category 3 or higher on the modern Saffir–Simpson scale. The United States Weather Bureau defined the season as officially lasting from June 16 to October 16. Tropical cyclones that did not approach populated areas or shipping lanes, especially if they were relatively weak and of short duration, may have remained undetected. Because technologies such as satellite monitoring were not available until the 1960s, historical data on tropical cyclones from this period are often not reliable. As a result of a reanalysis project which analyzed the season in 2012, a tropical storm and a hurricane were added to the Atlantic hurricane database (HURDAT). The official intensities and tracks of all storms were also revised by the reanalysis. The year's first storm formed on July 29 in the Gulf of Mexico, and the final system, a hurricane, dissipated over open ocean on October 21.
The 1934 Atlantic hurricane season produced thirteen tropical storms, of which seven further organized into hurricanes. Of those seven hurricanes, only one intensified into a major hurricane, which is a Category 3 or stronger system on the modern-day Saffir–Simpson scale. The first system developed on June 4 while the last storm dissipated on November 30. In 2012, as part of the Atlantic hurricane reanalysis project, meteorologists identified two previously unknown September tropical storms and fine-tuned the meteorological histories of many others. However, given scant observations from ships and weather stations, significant uncertainty of tropical cyclone tracks, intensity, and duration remains, particularly for those storms that stayed at sea.
The 1923 Atlantic hurricane season featured 11 tropical cyclones, 9 of which intensified into tropical storms, the most since 1916. Four of the tropical storms intensified into hurricanes, one of which reached major hurricane intensity—Category 3 or higher on the modern-day Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale. No tropical storms or hurricanes formed in or entered the Caribbean Sea. The first known system, a tropical depression, formed on June 19, while the last known system, a tropical storm, transitioned into an extratropical cyclone on October 26. A total of Additionally, an October tropical depression was previously recognized as a tropical storm until reanalysis in 2009, while the first and third tropical storms were added to the Atlantic hurricane database that year. The sixth, seven, and eight storms as well as the October tropical depression existed simultaneously on October 16.
The 1921 Atlantic hurricane season was an active hurricane season, with 12 tropical cyclones forming. Among them, seven became tropical storms, of which five strengthened into hurricanes. Furthermore, two of these strengthened into a major hurricane, Category 3 or higher on the modern-day Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale, the most since the 1917 season. The first system, a tropical depression, developed on June 1, while the last, a tropical storm, dissipated on November 25. Of note, three tropical cyclones co-existed with another during the season.
Hurricane Carol was among the worst tropical cyclones on record to affect the states of Connecticut and Rhode Island in the United States. It developed from a tropical wave near the Bahamas on August 25, 1954, and slowly strengthened as it moved northwestward. On August 27, Carol intensified to reach winds of 105 mph (169 km/h), but weakened as its motion turned to a northwest drift. A strong trough of low pressure turned the hurricane northeastward, and Carol later intensified into a major hurricane. While paralleling the Mid-Atlantic and Southeastern United States, the storm produced strong winds and rough seas that caused minor coastal flooding and slight damage to houses in North Carolina, Virginia, Washington, D.C., Delaware, and New Jersey. The well-organized hurricane accelerated north-northeastward and made landfall on eastern Long Island, New York, and then over eastern Connecticut on August 31 with sustained winds estimated at 110-mph and a barometric pressure near 956 mb. Carol later transitioned into an extratropical cyclone over New Hampshire, on August 31, 1954.
The 1944 Great Atlantic hurricane was a destructive and powerful tropical cyclone that swept across a large portion of the United States East Coast in September 1944. New England was most affected, though so were the Outer Banks, Mid-Atlantic states, and the Canadian Maritimes. The storm's ferocity and path drew comparisons to the 1938 Long Island Express, one of the worst storms in New England history.
The 1903 Atlantic hurricane season featured seven hurricanes, the most in an Atlantic hurricane season since 1893. The first tropical cyclone was initially observed in the western Atlantic Ocean near Puerto Rico on July 21. The tenth and final system transitioned into an extratropical cyclone well northwest of the Azores on November 25. These dates fall within the period with the most tropical cyclone activity in the Atlantic. Six of the ten tropical cyclones existed simultaneously.
The 1901 Atlantic hurricane season was the most active season without a major hurricane – tropical cyclones that reach at least Category 3 on the Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale – until 2013. The first system was initially observed in the northeastern Caribbean on June 11. The fourteenth and final system transitioned into an extratropical cyclone near Bermuda on November 5. These dates fall within the period with the most tropical cyclone activity in the Atlantic. Eight of the fourteen tropical cyclones existed simultaneously.
The 1900 Atlantic hurricane season featured the Galveston hurricane, the deadliest natural disaster in the history of the United States. A total of 10 tropical cyclones formed, seven of which intensified into a tropical storm. Three of those made landfall in the United States. The first system was initially observed over the central Atlantic Ocean on January 17, while the final storm transitioned into an extratropical cyclone on October 28. These dates fall within the period with the most tropical cyclone activity in the Atlantic. Every storm of the season except the seventh system existed simultaneously with another tropical cyclone.
The 1898 Atlantic hurricane season marked the beginning of the Weather Bureau operating a network of observation posts across the Caribbean Sea to track tropical cyclones, established primarily due to the onset of the Spanish–American War. A total of eleven tropical storms formed, five of which intensified into a hurricane, according to HURDAT, the National Hurricane Center's official database. Further, one cyclone strengthened into a major hurricane. However, in the absence of modern satellite and other remote-sensing technologies, only storms that affected populated land areas or encountered ships at sea were recorded, so the actual total could be higher. An undercount bias of zero to six tropical cyclones per year between 1851 and 1885 and zero to four per year between 1886 and 1910 has been estimated. The first system was initially observed on August 2 near West End in the Bahamas, while the eleventh and final storm dissipated on November 4 over the Mexican state of Veracruz.
The 1897 Atlantic hurricane season was an inactive season, featuring only six known tropical cyclones, four of which made landfall. There were three hurricanes, none of which strengthened into major hurricanes, which are Category 3 or higher on the modern-day Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale. The first system was initially observed south of Cape Verde on August 31, an unusually late date. The storm was the strongest of the season, peaking as a Category 2 hurricane with winds of 100 mph (155 km/h). While located well north of the Azores, rough seas by the storm sunk a ship, killing all 45 crewmen. A second storm was first spotted in the Straits of Florida on September 10. It strengthened into a hurricane and tracked northwestward across the Gulf of Mexico, striking Louisiana shortly before dissipating on September 13. This storm caused 29 deaths and $150,000 (1897 USD) in damage.
The 1892 Atlantic hurricane season included the last tropical cyclone on record to pass through the Cabo Verde Islands at hurricane intensity until 2015. A total of nine tropical storms developed, five of which strengthened into a hurricane, though none of them became a major hurricane. However, in the absence of modern satellite and other remote-sensing technologies, only storms that affected populated land areas or encountered ships at sea were recorded, so the actual total could be higher. An undercount bias of zero to six tropical cyclones per year between 1851 and 1885 and zero to four per year between 1886 and 1910 has been estimated. Three tropical storms made landfall on the United States.
Hurricane Esther was the first large tropical cyclone to be discovered by satellite imagery. The fifth tropical cyclone, named storm, and hurricane of the 1961 Atlantic hurricane season, Esther developed from an area of disturbed weather hundreds of miles west-southwest of the southernmost Cape Verde Islands on September 10. Moving northwestward, the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Esther on September 11, before reaching hurricane intensity on the following day. Early on September 13, Esther curved westward and deepened into a major hurricane. The storm remained a Category 3 hurricane for about four days and gradually moved in a west-northwestward direction. Late on September 17, Esther strengthened into a Category 5 hurricane with sustained winds of 160 mph (260 km/h) on September 18. The storm curved north-northeastward on September 19, while offshore of North Carolina. Esther began to weaken while approaching New England and fell to Category 3 intensity on September 21. The storm turned eastward early on the following day, and rapidly weakened to a tropical storm.
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The strengthening of the subtropical ridge over Bermuda steers the hurricane west, while an extratropical low forms over the Great Lakes on September 18
The extratropical low pulls in cold air from the north, allowing it to strengthen and develop a cold front over the Eastern United States on September 19
The hurricane begins to be pulled northward by the quasi-stationary cold front on September 20
Extratropical transition gradually begins as the hurricane interacts with the frontal boundary on September 21
Following landfall, the storm merges with the trough of low-pressure, isolating it from tropical air and completing extratropical transition on September 22
