1928 Okeechobee hurricane

Last updated
Map key
Saffir–Simpson scale
  Tropical depression (≤38 mph, ≤62 km/h)
  Tropical storm (39–73 mph, 63–118 km/h)
  Category 1 (74–95 mph, 119–153 km/h)
  Category 2 (96–110 mph, 154–177 km/h)
  Category 3 (111–129 mph, 178–208 km/h)
  Category 4 (130–156 mph, 209–251 km/h)
  Category 5 (≥157 mph, ≥252 km/h)
  Unknown
Storm type
Disc Plain black.svg Tropical cyclone
Solid black.svg Subtropical cyclone
ArrowUp.svg Extratropical cyclone, remnant low, tropical disturbance, or monsoon depression

On September 6, ships reported a tropical depression developing just off the west coast of Africa near Dakar, Senegal. On the next day, a ship reported winds of 60 mph (97 km/h), or tropical storm status; on this basis, the Atlantic hurricane reanalysis project estimated that the system attained tropical storm status late on September 6. However, lack of observations for several days prevented the system from being classified in real time as it moved generally westward across the Atlantic Ocean. [3] On September 10, the S.S. Commack first observed the storm about 900 mi (1,450 km) to the east of Guadeloupe, which at the time was the most easterly report of a tropical cyclone ever received through ship's radio. Later that day, two other ships confirmed the intensity of the storm, [4] and the Hurricane Research Division estimated it strengthened into a hurricane at 18:00  UTC on September 10. [3]

As the storm neared the Lesser Antilles, it continued to intensify. [5] Between 17:30 and 18:30 UTC on September 12, the hurricane's eye moved over Guadeloupe with a barometric pressure of 940 mb (28 inHg), suggesting maximum sustained winds of 140 mph (230 km/h), or Category 4 intensity on the Saffir–Simpson scale. [3] Continuing to the west-northwest, the hurricane passed about 10 mi (16 km) south of Saint Croix before approaching Puerto Rico. On September 13, the 15 mi (24 km) eye crossed Puerto Rico in eight hours from the southeast to the northwest, moving ashore near Guayama and exiting between Aguadilla and Isabela. [6] A ship near the southern coast reported a pressure of 931 mbar (27.5 inHg), and the cup anemometer at San Juan reported sustained winds of 160 mph (257 km/h) before failing. [3] As the wind station was 30 mi (48 km) north of the storm's center, winds near the landfall point were unofficially estimated as high as 200 mph (320 km/h). [4] On this basis, the hurricane is believed to have made landfall in Puerto Rico as a Category 5 hurricane on the Saffir-Simpson scale, although there was uncertainty in the peak intensity, due to the large size and slow movement of the storm. [3]

After emerging from Puerto Rico, the hurricane had weakened to winds of about 140 mph (230 km/h), based on a pressure reading of 941 mbar (27.8 inHg) at Isabela. The storm brushed the northern coast of Hispaniola while moving west-northwestward, gradually restrengthening. On September 15, it passed within 35 mi (56 km) of Grand Turk, by which time the winds increased to 155 mph (249 km/h). The storm continued through the Bahamas as a strong Category 4 hurricane, passing near Nassau at 10:00 UTC on September 16. [3] Initially, Richard Gray of the U.S. Weather Bureau was optimistic that the storm would spare South Florida. [7] However, at 00:00 UTC on September 17, the large hurricane made landfall in southeastern Florida near West Palm Beach, with estimated winds of 145 mph (233 km/h). This was based on a pressure reading of 929 mbar (27.4 inHg) in the city, [3] which at the time was the lowest pressure reading in the mainland United States; this broke the previous record of 935 mbar (27.6 inHg) set during the 1926 Miami hurricane. Peak gusts were estimated near 160 mph (260 km/h) at Canal Point. [4]

The hurricane quickly weakened as it progressed inland and moved over Lake Okeechobee, although its large size enabled it to maintain hurricane status for several more days. Late on September 17, the hurricane recurved to the northeast and passed near Jacksonville early the next day with winds of 75 mph (121 km/h). At 08:00 UTC on September 18, the storm again reached open waters. Later that day, the hurricane restrengthened slightly over open waters, making a second United States landfall near Edisto Island, South Carolina, at 19:00 UTC with winds of 85 mph (137 km/h). Accelerating northeastward, the system quickly weakened into a tropical storm over North Carolina. On September 19, the storm transitioned into an extratropical cyclone, although it restrengthened slightly to hurricane strength, due to baroclinic forcing caused by a frontal system. The cyclone turned to the north-northwest, moving quickly through the eastern United States. [3] On September 21, the former hurricane dissipated over Ontario, [3] having merged with another disturbance. [4]

Effects

Leeward Islands

Hurricane Four
1928 Okeechobee hurricane
San Felipe Segundo hurricane
1928 Okeechobee Hurricane Analysis 13 Sep.jpg
Surface weather analysis of the storm nearing Puerto Rico as a Category 5 hurricane on September 13
Storm deaths by region
RegionDeathsLocaleDeaths
Caribbean
and Bahamas		1,601 [4] [8] Martinique 3 [8]
Guadeloupe 1,200 [8]
Montserrat 42 [9]
Dominica 1 [8]
Saint Kitts and Nevis 22 [8]
Puerto Rico312 [8]
Turks and Caicos Islands 18 [8]
Bahamas3 [4]
United States2,511+ [10] Florida2,500+
Maryland1
New Jersey3
Pennsylvania7
Total4,112+

The hurricane moved directly over the Leeward Islands in the Caribbean Sea, strengthening as it did so. On the island of Dominica, winds were clocked at 24 mph (39 km/h); there were no reports of damage, [4] though one fatality occurred. [8] In Martinique, further south of the storm's path, there were three fatalities. Guadeloupe received a direct hit from the storm, apparently with little warning; the death toll there was 1,200, [11] and damage reports relayed through Paris indicated "great destruction" on the island. [4] About three-fourths of the island's residents were left homeless. In the community of Saint-François, the only structure to remain standing was the police station, which was built with reinforced concrete. To the east of the town, the merchant ship Albatros sank; it had been carrying 80 casks of rum. The crew and the five men attempting to save the ship drowned. [8] Approximately 85%–95% of banana crops were destroyed, 70%–80% of tree crops suffered severe damage, and 40% of the sugar cane crop was ruined. The people struggled to survive both in the short and longer term after the storm. [12]

Montserrat, just north of the storm's center, was warned in advance of the storm but still suffered £150,000 (1928 UKP) in damages and 42 deaths; Plymouth and Salem were devastated, and crop losses caused near-starvation conditions before relief could arrive. [9] All commercial and government buildings on the island were destroyed, as were more than 600 homes. Saint Kitts and Nevis also suffered heavily. On the island of St. Kitts, a number of homes built on wooden foundations were demolished. Nine deaths were reported, six of which occurred in a schoolhouse collapse. Thirteen people were killed on the island of Nevis. [8]

The storm destroyed hundreds of homes on Antigua, including a doctor's home and a "poor house". Government offices, hospitals, and school were also damaged. On Saint Croix, nearly all of the island's 11,000 residents suffered some degree of loss. A total of 143 buildings were destroyed, including a sugar mill. The storm resulted in nine deaths on the island. Throughout the Virgin Islands, as many as 700,000 people were rendered homeless. [8]

Puerto Rico

Hurricane-force winds drove this 10-foot (3.0 m) piece of 2x4 lumber through a palm tree in Puerto Rico. Hurricane winds drive a 10-foot 2X4 through a palm tree.jpg
Hurricane-force winds drove this 10-foot (3.0 m) piece of 2x4 lumber through a palm tree in Puerto Rico.

While the storm was passing near Dominica, the U.S. Weather Bureau located at San Juan, Puerto Rico, warned about the threat of the hurricane which would strike the island within a day or two. The advisory was sent via telegraph to 75 police districts and was broadcast from the naval radio station every two hours; [13] this was the first hurricane warning broadcast by radio. [6] Warnings were also posted for 12 ports along the southern coast, causing ships to avoid the island or remain at port. Effective preparation is credited for the relatively low death toll of 312, and not a single ship was lost at sea in the vicinity of Puerto Rico. By comparison, the weaker 1899 San Ciriaco hurricane killed approximately 3,000 people. [13]

Strongest U.S. landfalling tropical cyclones†
RankName‡SeasonWind speed
mphkm/h
1 "Labor Day" 1935 185295
2 Karen 1962 175280
Camille 1969
Yutu 2018
5 Andrew 1992 165270
6 "Okeechobee" 1928 160260
Michael 2018
8 Maria 2017 155250
9 "Last Island" 1856 150240
"Indianola" 1886
"Florida Keys" 1919
"Freeport" 1932
Charley 2004
Laura 2020
Ida 2021
Ian 2022
Source: Hurricane Research Division [14]
†Strength refers to maximum sustained wind speed upon striking land.
‡Systems prior to 1950 were not officially named.

According to the San Juan National Weather Service office, the storm was "up to this time the greatest and more [ sic ] intense and destructive hurricane of record in Puerto Rico." [6] Along the storm path, the eye passed over Guayama, Cayey, and Aibonito, resulting in a period of calm lasting 20 minutes. [13] The island of Puerto Rico received the worst of the storm's winds when the hurricane moved directly across the island at Category 5 strength. [13] The hurricane was extremely large as it crossed Puerto Rico. Hurricane-force winds were measured in Guayama for 18 hours, where a low pressure of 931 mbar (27.5 inHg) was reported. Since the storm is estimated to have been moving at 13 mph (21 km/h), the diameter of the storm's hurricane winds was estimated very roughly to be 234 mi (377 km). [13]

The rainfall recorded on September 13–14, 1928, remains the record for the maximum rainfall associated with a hurricane in Puerto Rico within a period of forty-eight hours. In those regions where precipitation is more common place, as in Adjuntas in the Cordillera Central and in the Sierra de Luquillo, the rain was over 25 inches (640 mm), with 29.60 in (752 mm) recorded in Adjuntas. The anemometer located in Puerta de Tierra lost one of its cups at 11:44 am on September 13, just when it had registered a maximum speed of 150 mph (240 km/h) —a speed that was sustained for five consecutive minutes. Previously the same instrument had measured 160 mph (260 km/h) for one minute. Because these measurements were taken 30 mi (48 km) from San Felipe's eye, at the time, it seemed possible that some estimates of 200 mph (320 km/h) near the center of the storm were not overdrawn. [15]

Wettest tropical cyclones and their remnants in Puerto Rico
Highest-known totals
PrecipitationStormLocationRef.
Rankmmin
11,058.741.68 Fifteen 1970 Jayuya 1 SE [16]
2962.737.90 Maria 2017 Caguas [17]
3845.633.29 Eloise 1975 Dos Bocas [16]
4822.932.40 Fiona 2022 Marueno [18]
5804.431.67 Isabel 1985 Toro Negro Forest [19]
6775.030.51 Georges 1998 Jayuya [16]
7751.829.60 San Felipe II 1928 Adjuntas [15]
8662.226.07 Hazel 1954 Toro Negro Tunnel [20]
9652.525.69 Klaus 1984 Guavate Camp [16]
10596.423.48 Hortense 1996 Cayey 1 NW [16]

There was general destruction through the island, with the towns where the eye passed being swept away. [15] Property damage on the island from winds and rain was catastrophic. The northeast portion of the island received winds in excess of Category 3 strength, with hurricane-force winds lasting as long as 18 hours. Official reports stated "several hundred thousand" people were left homeless, and property damages were estimated at $50 million. [13] [21]

On the island there was no building that was not affected. Some sugar mills ("Centrales") that had cost millions of dollars to build were reduced to rubble. Reports say that 24,728 homes were destroyed and 192,444 were partially destroyed. [15] Most of the sugarcane fields were flooded, ruining the year's crops. Half of the coffee plants and half of the shade trees that covered these were destroyed; almost all of the coffee harvest was lost. The coffee industry would take years to recover since coffee needs shade trees to grow. The tobacco farms also had great losses. After this hurricane, Puerto Rico never regained its position as a major coffee exporter. [22]

Communications were disrupted by fallen trees, landslides, and damaged bridges. Some 770 school buildings were destroyed or damaged. According to some estimates of the day, excluding personal losses, the damages reached $85.312 million and more than 500,000 people were left homeless. Until Hurricane Maria 89 years later, San Felipe II was officially classified as Puerto Rico's biggest, worst, and most devastating hurricane to ever have hit the island. [15]

Greater Antilles and Bahamas

Deadliest Atlantic hurricanes
RankHurricaneSeasonFatalities
1 ?  "Great Hurricane" 1780 22,000–27,501
2 5  Mitch 1998 11,374+
3 2  Fifi 1974 8,210–10,000
4 4  "Galveston" 1900 8,000–12,000
5 4  Flora 1963 7,193
6 ?  "Pointe-à-Pitre" 1776 6,000+
7 5  "Okeechobee" 1928 4,112+
8 ?  "Newfoundland" 1775 4,000–4,163
9 3  "Monterrey" 1909 4,000
10 4  "San Ciriaco" 1899 3,855

After affecting Puerto Rico, the hurricane passed just north of the Dominican Republic, causing very little damage. This was due to the small core and weaker winds to the south of the center. Advance warning reduced the number of ships traversing the region. [4]

While the hurricane was passing nearby, Grand Turk reported winds of 120 mph (193 km/h). According to a ship report in the region, "The force of the wind ... could only be judged by the noise made by the storm, which reminded me of the New York subway going full speed passing switches." Winds approached 120 mph (193 km/h) at Nassau before the anemometer failed. [3] In addition to the winds, the storm dropped heavy rainfall in the region, totaling 9 in (230 mm) in Nassau. [4] As in Puerto Rico, authorities in the Bahamas had ample warning of the hurricane's approach, and preparations minimized the loss of life in the islands. Two boats were wrecked as they washed ashore in Grand Turk, although the crews were saved. A sloop traversing from Ambergris Cay to Grand Turk was lost, killing all 18 people on board. [4] The storm caused heavy damage throughout the Bahamas, mostly to property and crops. [3]

In Nassau, some buildings which had been recently repaired after the 1926 Nassau hurricane were destroyed during this storm. A 10-year-old girl drowned after falling into an open trench filled with water. At the Fort Montague Hotel, the windows, doors, and furniture were badly damaged. Similar damage was reported at the Royal Victoria Hotel, while the British Colonial Hotel was largely spared. However, the gardens of the three hotels were "damaged almost beyond recognition". [8]

On Bimini, sustained winds of 140 mph (230 km/h) were observed, causing major damage to buildings. Ninety-five houses and some other buildings, including a few churches and government buildings, were damaged or destroyed on Eleuthera. Minor damage was reported on Rum Cay. Most of the food crops were destroyed. On San Salvador Island, four buildings were demolished, including two churches, while several other structures suffered minor damage. Food crops were nearly wiped out. [8]

Florida

Damage from the hurricane 1928 Okeechobee Aftermath.jpg
Damage from the hurricane

While the hurricane was moving through the Bahamas, the Weather Bureau issued storm warnings from Miami to Titusville, later upgrading to a hurricane warning from Miami to Daytona Beach. The agency advised residents to take precautions for the hurricane, citing the potential for strong winds and waves. Hurricane warnings were also posted for the west coast from Punta Rassa to Apalachicola, and after the storm recurved, hurricane warnings were extended along the east coast to Jacksonville. [4] Because of well-issued hurricane warnings, residents were prepared for the storm, and only 26 deaths were recorded in the coastal Palm Beach area. [4]

Strong winds struck southern Florida as the hurricane moved ashore, with three unofficial reports of 100 mph (161 km/h). [4] In Miami to the south of the center, winds reached 78 mph (126 km/h), [3] and farther south, Key West reported winds of 39 mph (63 km/h). The eye at landfall was 25 mi (40 km) wide, and after moving inland crossed Lake Okeechobee, where a calm was reported for 30 minutes. Winds at Canal Point, adjacent to the lake, were estimated as high as 160 mph (257 km/h); the anemometer blew away after reporting sustained winds of 75 mph (121 km/h). The pressure at Canal Point dropped to 942 mbar (27.8 inHg). The lowest pressure north of Lake Okeechobee was 966 mbar (28.5 inHg) in Bartow, and along the west coast, winds reached 31 mph (50 km/h) in Tampa. [4]

The hurricane left thousands of people homeless in Florida; property damage was estimated at $25 million ($444 million). It is estimated if a similar storm were to strike as of the year 2003, it would cause $18.7 billion in damages. The cyclone remains one of three Atlantic hurricanes to strike the southern mainland of Florida with a central pressure below 940 mbar (28 inHg), the others being the 1926 Miami hurricane and Hurricane Andrew of 1992. [23]

In addition to the human fatalities, 1,278 livestock and 47,389 poultry were killed. [24] Agriculture was significantly affected, with the storm destroying what may have been the largest "citrus crop in the history of the industry". Approximately 6% of oranges and 18% of grapefruit were ruined. Harvesting the remaining crops was delayed until mid-October due to inundated groves. [8] Communications also suffered severely. Throughout the state, 32,000 households were left without telephone service and 400 poles were broken and about 2,500 others leaning. [8] Governor of Florida John W. Martin estimated that 15,000 families were left homeless in Palm Beach County alone. Additionally, about 11,500 families would need to be "re-established". [25]

Coastal South Florida

Approximate area of the flood. Note: The Palm Beach County label is misplaced. North of Canal Point has been in Martin County since 1925. 1928 Okeechobee Flood.png
Approximate area of the flood. Note: The Palm Beach County label is misplaced. North of Canal Point has been in Martin County since 1925.

In Miami, damage was minimal, limited to broken windows and awnings. In Hollywood and Fort Lauderdale, windows and roofs were damaged, although to a fairly minor extent. [4] Numerous power lines and telephone wires were downed in the latter city. [26] Northward, from Pompano Beach to Jupiter, buildings suffered serious damage from the heavy winds and 10 ft (3.0 m) storm surge. [4] Nearly all small frame houses were destroyed in Deerfield Beach, while several citizens estimated that at least 50% of homes were demolished. The town's post office, depot, and an entire business block were also destroyed. An eight-year-old boy drowned in a ditch near where his family sought refuge. In Boca Raton, two garages and several houses were destroyed. At the Cloister Inn, windows were shattered and the roof was damaged; across the street, 32 freight cars belonging to a train along the Florida East Coast Railway were tossed by the wind into a nearby ditch. A short distance to the north, a warehouse was flattened. A building occupied by a restaurant and a store was flattened. In Delray Beach, four churches suffered severe damage and the Alta Repp and Seacrest hotels both lost a portion of their roof. The police reported three deaths within the city. In Delray Beach and Lantana, all houses and the railroad station were badly damaged. In Boynton Beach, about 75% of businesses suffered complete destruction. Fifteen people were injured by a roof collapse while taking refuge in the auditorium of a high school. [27]

Aftermath of the hurricane in southern Florida 1928 Okeechobee Aftermath 17.jpg
Aftermath of the hurricane in southern Florida

In Lake Worth, approximately 50% of homes were damaged or destroyed, while 75% of buildings in the business district suffered damage. [27] Damage along the coast was most severe in Palm Beach. Total coastal damages were estimated as "several million" dollars. [4] In West Palm Beach, the storm destroyed 1,711 homes and damaged 6,369 others, and demolished 268 businesses and impacted 490 other businesses; the city suffered the worst damage, totaling just under $13.8 million. [25] Likewise, there was also severe wind damage in Palm Beach. A few buildings constructed by Henry Flagler, such as The Breakers, the Royal Poinciana Hotel, and Whitehall, were damaged. Mar-a-Lago suffered few effects other than uprooted trees and the destruction of a large Roman-style window, according to Marjorie Merriweather Post. Rodman Wanamaker's house, known as "La Querida" and later the "Winter White House" when used by President John F. Kennedy, suffered heavy damage during the storm. [25] The Alba, Billows, New Palm Beach, and Royal Daneli hotels all suffered water damage, while the Alba Hotel was also deroofed. Nearby, the Rainbow Pier had only structural damage to its railings, though the pier office was blown away. [28] Approximately 600 structures, including 10 hotels, were damaged in Palm Beach. Damage totaled over $2 million. [25]

The strongest winds in the eyewall affected northern Palm Beach County, particularly the vicinity of Jupiter as the eye made landfall farther south. [29] At the Jupiter Inlet Lighthouse, the mortar was reportedly "squeezed ... like toothpaste" from between the bricks during the storm, swaying the tower 17 in (430 mm) off the base. [30] The lighthouse keeper, Captain Seabrook, and his son, Franklin, worked to keep the light on during the storm after the electricity went out. After the generator failed to work, they hand-cranked the light's mantle. [31] The building formerly used as a Weather Bureau Office was destroyed. Nearby, six people died after a house was demolished. Six other fatalities occurred west of Jupiter after a school where people sought shelter collapsed. [8]

Lake Okeechobee and Everglades

Inland, the hurricane wreaked much more widespread destruction along the more heavily populated coast of Lake Okeechobee. Residents had been warned to evacuate the low ground earlier in the day, but after the hurricane did not arrive on schedule, many thought it had missed and returned to their homes. In the weeks prior to the storm, heavy rainfall had caused the lake to rise 3 ft (0.91 m) between August 10 and September 10 and filled nearby canals and ditches. Precipitation from the hurricane itself caused Lake Okeechobee to rise further. [30] When the worst of the storm crossed the lake, the south-blowing wind caused a storm surge to overflow the small dike that had been built at the south end of the lake. The resulting flood covered an area of hundreds of square miles with water that in some places was more than 20 ft (6.1 m) deep. Houses were floated off their foundations and dashed to pieces against any obstacles encountered. [32] Most survivors and bodies were washed out into the Everglades, where many of the bodies were never found. [33] Agricultural losses in the area surrounding Lake Okeechobee were also significant, with virtually all crops destroyed and over 150 tractors suffering damage. [8]

Storm total precipitation for September 15-19, 1928 Pcpn1928091519isohyet.png
Storm total precipitation for September 15–19, 1928

As the rear eyewall passed over the area, the flood reversed itself, breaking the dikes along the northern coast of the lake and causing similar but smaller flooding. [33] Route 98, then known as Conner's Highway, was closed until January, when the bridge across the Onosohatchee River at Taylor Creek was replaced after the original bridge was carried about 150 ft (46 m) upstream during the storm. [34] In Okeechobee County, homes along the lake were destroyed by the storm surge, while dwellings within the city of Okeechobee were severely damaged or demolished by winds of at least 90 mph (140 km/h). However, brick and concrete dwellings suffered little damage. A number of three-story business buildings collapsed during the storm. [35] Almost all roads were left impassable, while communications were nearly wiped out. [36] Overall, 27 deaths occurred in Okeechobee County. Along the southwestern shore of Lake Okeechobee, the towns of Clewiston and Moore Haven were both flooded, but most houses suffered more damage due to strong winds. [35]

On Kreamer Island, many residents received information about the storm when it was too late to evacuate. In some houses, 20–30 people sought shelter inside and later stood on tables and chairs to remain above the water. Most of the houses were swept away into rows of pine trees and others more than one-half mile (0.80 km) away. Despite this, only one person drowned on the island. Residents of Torry Island did not have enough time to prepare for the storm. They tried to evacuate, but with the causeway already inundated, twenty-three people sought refuge in a packinghouse. Floodwaters entered the building, forcing the occupants into the rafters. The building was eventually pushed into a nearby canal. Ten people drowned, but thirteen others survived by clinging to a barge or tree tops, while one woman tied herself to a telegraph pole. Others who survived were swept far away from the original sites of the building and the barge. A teenage boy was carried from the packinghouse to the Everglades Experiment Station in Belle Glade – a distance of about 8 mi (13 km). [30] On Ritta Island, a number of persons who had successfully climbed to the roof of their houses to escape floodwaters were struck by trees or received fatal bites from water moccasins. [37]

In South Bay, nearly all houses were destroyed and several buildings were unroofed. At least 160 fatalities occurred in the city. [25] The future first mayor of South Bay, Aubrey (a.k.a. "Orb" or "A.O.") Walker, along with his brother, Haughty D. Walker (a.k.a. "Haught"), survived the great hurricane of 1928 by gathering family members and joining a number of other South Bay citizens on a barge in the canal; this action allowed them to survive the flood waters that swept over South Bay and ultimately engulfed Okeelanta. [38] Throughout the 1920s, Okeelanta had suffered several floods and muck fires. After being flooded severely during the 1928 hurricane, it was abandoned. [39] Bean City was also destroyed during the hurricane, but it was eventually rebuilt by Arthur Wells. [40] Sebring Farms was reduced to piles of rubber, with only four tall royal palm trees left standing. [8] The hotel at Miami Locks was the only building to survive the storm. [8] Ninety-nine people died in that town. [8] In Chosen, only two people escaped a house that had sheltered nineteen people. Twenty other residents took refuge in a building which lost its roof during the storm, forcing the occupants to move into the restroom. A house that was full of people floated about one-half mile (0.80 km) from its original location. The refugees were unaware that the house was moving until it collided with a railroad embankment. [30]

Burial of victims in West Palm Beach Burial of victims of the 1928 hurricane- West Palm Beach, Florida (3674596695).jpg
Burial of victims in West Palm Beach

Floodwaters persisted for several weeks, greatly impeding attempts to clean up the devastation. Burial services were quickly overwhelmed, and many of the bodies were placed into mass graves. Around 75% of the fatalities were migrant farm workers, making identification of both the dead and missing very difficult; as a result of this, the count of the dead is not very accurate. The Red Cross estimated the number of fatalities as 1,836, which was taken as the official count by the National Weather Service for many years. Older sources usually list 3,411 as the hurricane's total count of fatalities, including the Caribbean. However, in 2003, the U.S. death count was revised to "at least" 2,500, making the Okeechobee hurricane one of the deadliest natural disasters in United States history. A mass grave at the Port Mayaca Cemetery east of Port Mayaca contains the bodies of 1,600 victims of the hurricane. [33]

Central and North Florida

In Fort Myers, property damage was slight, limited mostly to scores of small boats and fishing shacks along the waterfront. [41] Nearly all cigar factories in Tampa were closed after wind and rain drove too much moisture into the buildings. [42] Offshore, the fishing smack Wallace A. McDonnell was beached near Piney Point, though all of the crew survived. The Cuban schooner Isabel Alvado sank offshore Boca Grande. The crew, who were immigrants, were rescued by the Coast Guard and later deported. [43] In Martin County, a bridge connecting Stuart and Palm City was severely damaged and closed to traffic as a result. A temporary ferry service across the St. Lucie River was established and operated until repairs to the bridge were complete in the summer of 1929. [44] In Fort Pierce, most of the effects were confined to the waterfront areas. A warehouse, fish houses, docks, and a bridge across the Indian River were destroyed, while several other buildings were unroofed. Damage in the city totaled about $150,000. [25]

In the interior areas of Central and North Florida, effects were mainly confined to agricultural losses, particularly citrus, though wind damage occurred to structures. Between Sebring and Lake Wales, 200 telephone poles were toppled. In Bartow, business building windows were shattered and signs were knocked down, while several roofs and chimneys also suffered damage. Winds gusting up to 70 mph (110 km/h) lashed Lakeland. Many trees were uprooted and several buildings were impacted, including the hospital and a number of businesses. At Florida Southern College (FSC), the north side of the gymnasium collapsed while other buildings on campus were damaged to a lesser degree. The trees in the citrus grove surrounding FSC lost much of their fruit. Overall, Lakeland suffered about $50,000 in damage. [45] In Orlando, damage to properties was described as slight. [41] Strong winds up to 50 mph (80 km/h) affected the Jacksonville area, resulting in minor damage at Jacksonville Beach. [46]

Elsewhere

Outside Florida, damage from the hurricane elsewhere in the United States was minor. [4] In Georgia, low-lying streets were flooded or washed out in the Savannah area. Additionally, winds downed trees and power lines. [3] Heavy rainfall occurred from eastern Florida through coastal Georgia, the Carolinas, and southeast Virginia. The highest rainfall total was 12.53 inches (318 mm) at Darlington, South Carolina. [47] The storm caused flooding in North Carolina and brought near-hurricane-force winds and a 7 feet (2.1 m) storm surge to the Norfolk area. [48] After the hurricane became extratropical, its wind field became very large. Atlantic City, New Jersey, recorded winds of 76 mph (122 km/h) despite being far from the center. [3]

Aftermath

Deadliest United States hurricanes
RankHurricaneSeasonFatalities
1 4  "Galveston" 1900 8,000–12,000
2 4  "San Ciriaco" 1899 3,400
3 4  Maria 2017 2,982
4 5  "Okeechobee" 1928 2,823
5 4  "Cheniere Caminada" 1893 2,000
6 3  Katrina 2005 1,392
7 3  "Sea Islands" 1893 1,000–2,000
8 3  "Indianola" 1875 771
9 4  "Florida Keys" 1919 745
10 2  "Georgia" 1881 700
Reference: NOAA, GWU [49] [50] [nb 1]

In the immediate aftermath of the deadly storm, relief arrived from nearby areas such as Miami. Early on September 18, a train leaving Miami carried 20 doctors and 20 nurses to West Palm Beach. [51] The Miami Red Cross Citizens Relief Committee, which was established to provide aid for victims of the storm, transported "hundreds of loaves of bread, gallons of milk, pounds of coffee and sugar, blankets, cots, and medical supplies." The first relief train was ridden by U.S. Senator Joseph T. Robinson, the Democratic vice presidential nominee during the election that year. At least 100 people were brought to Miami for medical treatment. In Lake Worth, 25 people were treated for various injuries at the Gulf Stream Hotel and the local fire station. Dr. W. A. Claxton, chief of the Miami Department of Public Welfare, requested antitoxin, typhoid serum, and at least 200 tetanus serums. There was also a request for 1,000 more cots in West Palm Beach and Kelsey City. [52]

Racial issues

Historical marker at the mass grave in West Palm Beach Mass Grave 020.JPG
Historical marker at the mass grave in West Palm Beach

In Florida, although the hurricane's destruction affected everything in its path, the death toll was by far the highest and the aftermath the worst in the economically poor areas in the low-lying ground near Lake Okeechobee, such as the towns of Belle Glade, Chosen, Pahokee, South Bay, and Bean City. [53] Around 75% of the fatalities were among migrant farm workers, most of whom were black.

The black workers did most of the post-hurricane cleanup work. Reflecting racial and class discrimination, authorities reserved the few caskets available for burials for the bodies of whites. [54] White victims received a formal burial service, although in a mass grave, at Woodlawn Cemetery in downtown West Palm Beach. [53] This was the only mass gravesite to receive a timely memorial. [54]

In contrast, the bodies of black victims were burned in funeral pyres or thrown into mass burial sites such as the ones in West Palm Beach and Port Mayaca.

The historical marker added to the memorial site in 2003, the seventy-fifth anniversary of the storm West PB FL 1928 Mass Burial Site marker01.jpg
The historical marker added to the memorial site in 2003, the seventy-fifth anniversary of the storm

Robert Hazard, a resident of West Palm Beach, established the Storm of '28 Memorial Park Coalition Inc. to fight for recognition of the black victims of the storm. In 2000, the West Palm Beach burial site was reacquired by the city of West Palm Beach and plans for construction of a memorial began. The site was listed on the U.S. National Register of Historic Places in 2002 and a state historical marker was added in 2003 during events to commemorate the 75th anniversary of the hurricane. [53]

African-American writer Zora Neale Hurston explored the effects of the hurricane on black migrant workers in her seminal 1937 novel, Their Eyes Were Watching God . This is her best-known work and it was included on TIME magazine's 2005 list of the '100 best English-language novels published since 1923'. [55] [56]

Improved building codes

In the aftermath of the hurricane in coastal Florida, observers noted that well-constructed buildings with shutters had suffered practically no damage from winds that caused serious structural problems to lesser buildings. Buildings with well-constructed frames, and those made of steel, concrete, brick, or stone, were largely immune to winds. The use of shutters prevented damage to windows and the interior of the buildings. With the 1928 hurricane coming so soon after the 1926 Miami hurricane, where a similar pattern had been noticed, one lasting result of the 1928 storm was improved state and local building codes. [57]

Flood control

A sign advertising the completion of the Hoover Dike Army CoE sign Hoover Dike.jpg
A sign advertising the completion of the Hoover Dike

To prevent a recurrence of disasters like this one and the Great Miami Hurricane of 1926, the Florida State Legislature created the Okeechobee Flood Control District, which was authorized to cooperate with the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers in flood control undertakings. [58] After a personal inspection of the area by President Herbert Hoover, the Corps of Engineers drafted a plan to provide for the construction of floodway channels, control gates, and major levees along the shores of Lake Okeechobee. A long-term system was designed for the purpose of flood control, water conservation, prevention of saltwater intrusion, and preservation of fish and wildlife populations. [58] One of the solutions was the construction of the Herbert Hoover Dike.

In the early 21st century, there are concerns related to the dike's stability because studies have indicated long-term problems with "piping" and erosion. Leaks have been reported after several heavy rain events. Proposed solutions to the dike's problems have included the construction of a seepage berm on the landward side of the dike, with the first stage costing approximately $67 million (US$). [59]

Name

The storm was named the San Felipe II hurricane in Puerto Rico because the eye of the cyclone made landfall there on September 13, the Roman Catholic feast day of Saint Philip, [15] father of Saint Eugenia of Rome. (King Philip II of Spain happened to die on this day.) It was named "Segundo", Spanish for "the Second", because of the weaker but destructive "San Felipe hurricane" that had struck Puerto Rico on that same day in 1876.

In Puerto Rico, since European colonization, storms and hurricanes were named after the name of the saint's day that the storm hit the island. For example, they named the Great Hurricane of 1780 as San Calixto, after Saint Callixtus, whose feast day is October 14; the 1867 San Narciso hurricane, the 1899 San Ciriaco hurricane, and the 1932 San Ciprian hurricane were also named after the saints' feast days on which they occurred (respectively, Saint Narcissus of Jerusalem on October 29, Saint Cyriacus on August 8, and Saint Cyprian on September 26). [60]

In 1953, the United States Weather Bureau (now the National Weather Service) started naming hurricanes by human female names until 1978. That year both gender names began to be used after control over naming was relinquished to the World Meteorological Organization. It was not until 1960 that Puerto Rico stopped naming hurricanes after saints. Two cyclones have been given both women's and saint's names: Hurricane Betsy (Santa Clara, August 12, 1956) and Hurricane Donna (San Lorenzo, September 5, 1960). [15]

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ The storm category color indicates the intensity of the hurricane when landfalling in the U.S.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hurricane Donna</span> Category 4 Atlantic hurricane in 1960

Hurricane Donna, known in Puerto Rico as Hurricane San Lorenzo, was the strongest hurricane of the 1960 Atlantic hurricane season, and caused severe damage to the Lesser Antilles, the Greater Antilles, and the East Coast of the United States, especially Florida, in August–September. The fifth tropical cyclone, third hurricane, and first major hurricane of the season, Donna developed south of Cape Verde on August 29, spawned by a tropical wave to which 63 deaths from a plane crash in Senegal were attributed. The depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Donna by the following day. Donna moved west-northwestward at roughly 20 mph (32 km/h) and by September 1, it reached hurricane status. Over the next three days, Donna deepened significantly and reached maximum sustained winds of 130 mph (210 km/h) on September 4. Thereafter, it maintained intensity as it struck the Lesser Antilles later that day. On Sint Maarten, the storm left a quarter of the island's population homeless and killed seven people. An additional five deaths were reported in Anguilla, and there were seven other fatalities throughout the Virgin Islands. In Puerto Rico, severe flash flooding led to 107 fatalities, 85 of them in Humacao alone.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hurricane Frederic</span> Category 4 Atlantic hurricane in 1979

Hurricane Frederic, known in Latin America as Federico, was an intense and damaging tropical cyclone that carved a path of destruction from the Lesser Antilles to Quebec, in particular devastating areas of the United States Gulf Coast. Though only five were killed directly, the US$1.77 billion in damage accrued by Frederic made it the Atlantic basin's costliest tropical cyclone on record at the time. Prior to its final landfall, the threat that Frederic imposed on areas of the U.S. Gulf Coast triggered a mass exodus from the region larger than any other evacuation in the past. While the storm primarily impacted the U.S. states of Mississippi and Alabama, lesser effects were felt throughout the Greater and Lesser Antilles, as well as inland North America.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hurricane Jeanne</span> Category 3 Atlantic hurricane in 2004

Hurricane Jeanne was the deadliest tropical cyclone in the Atlantic basin since Mitch in 1998, and the deadliest tropical cyclone worldwide in 2004. It was the tenth named storm, the seventh hurricane, and the fifth major hurricane of the season, as well as the third hurricane and fourth named storm of the season to make landfall in Florida. After wreaking havoc on Hispaniola, Jeanne struggled to reorganize, eventually strengthening and performing a complete loop over the open Atlantic. It headed westwards, strengthening into a Category 3 hurricane and passing over the islands of Great Abaco and Grand Bahama in the Bahamas on September 25. Jeanne made landfall later in the day in Florida just two miles from where Hurricane Frances had struck a mere three weeks earlier.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">1949 Atlantic hurricane season</span>

The 1949 Atlantic hurricane season was the last season that tropical cyclones were not publicly labeled by the United States Weather Bureau. It officially began on June 15, and lasted until November 15. These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the Atlantic basin. The first storm, a tropical depression, developed in the northern Gulf of Mexico on August 14. The final system, Tropical Storm Sixteen, dissipated in the southwestern Caribbean Sea on November 5. It was a fairly active season, featuring 16 tropical storms and seven hurricanes. Two of these strengthened into major hurricanes, which are Category 3 or higher on the Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">1932 Atlantic hurricane season</span>

The 1932 Atlantic hurricane season featured several powerful storms, including the Cuba hurricane, which remains the deadliest tropical cyclone in the history of Cuba and among the most intense to strike the island nation. It was a relatively active season, with fifteen known storms, six hurricanes, and four major hurricanes. However, tropical cyclones that did not approach populated areas or shipping lanes, especially if they were relatively weak and of short duration, may have remained undetected. Because technologies such as satellite monitoring were not available until the 1960s, historical data on tropical cyclones from this period are often not reliable. The Atlantic hurricane reanalysis project discovered four new tropical cyclones, all of which were tropical storms, that occurred during the year. Two storms attained Category 5 intensity, the first known occurrence in which multiple Category 5 hurricanes formed in the same year. The season's first cyclone developed on May 5, while the last remaining system transitioned into an extratropical cyclone by November 13.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">1928 Atlantic hurricane season</span>

The 1928 Atlantic hurricane season was a near average hurricane season in which seven tropical cyclones developed. Of these, six intensified into a tropical storm and four further strengthened into hurricanes. One hurricane deepened into a major hurricane, which is Category 3 or higher on the modern-day Saffir–Simpson scale. The first system, the Fort Pierce hurricane, developed near the Lesser Antilles on August 3. The storm crossed the Bahamas and made landfall in Florida. Two fatalities and approximately $235,000 in damage was reported. A few days after the first storm developed, the Haiti hurricane, formed near the southern Windward Islands on August 7. The storm went on to strike Haiti, Cuba, and Florida. This storm left about $2 million in damage and at least 210 deaths. Impacts from the third system are unknown.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">1926 Atlantic hurricane season</span>

The 1926 Atlantic hurricane season featured the highest number of major hurricanes at the time. At least eleven tropical cyclones developed during the season, all of which intensified into a tropical storm and eight further strengthened into hurricanes. Six hurricanes deepened into a major hurricane, which is Category 3 or higher on the modern-day Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale. It was a fairly active and deadly season. The first system, the Nassau hurricane, developed near the Lesser Antilles on July 22. Moving west-northwest for much of its duration, the storm struck or brush several islands of the Lesser and Greater Antilles. However, the Bahamas later received greater impact. At least 287 deaths and $7.85 million (1926 USD) in damage was attributed to this hurricane. The next cyclone primarily affected mariners in and around the Maritimes of Canada, with boating accidents and drownings resulting in between 55 and 58 fatalities. In late August, the third hurricane brought widespread impact to the Gulf Coast of the United States, especially Louisiana. Crops and buildings suffered $6 million in damage and there were 25 people killed.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">1926 Miami hurricane</span> Category 4 Atlantic hurricane that hit Florida in 1926

The Great Miami Hurricane of 1926 was a large and intense tropical cyclone that devastated the Greater Miami area of Florida and caused catastrophic damage in the Bahamas and the U.S. Gulf Coast in September 1926, accruing a US$100 million damage toll. The devastation wrought by the hurricane resulted in the end of Florida's land boom, and represented an early start to the Great Depression in the state. It has been estimated that a similar hurricane would cause about $235 billion in damage if it were to hit Miami in 2018.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">1899 Atlantic hurricane season</span>

The 1899 Atlantic hurricane season featured the longest-lasting tropical cyclone in the Atlantic basin on record. There were nine tropical storms, of which five became hurricanes. Two of those strengthened into major hurricanes, which are Category 3 or higher on the modern day Saffir–Simpson scale. The first system was initially observed in the northeastern Gulf of Mexico on June 26. The tenth and final system dissipated near Bermuda on November 10. These dates fall within the period with the most tropical cyclone activity in the Atlantic. In post-season analysis, two tropical cyclones that existed in October were added to HURDAT – the official Atlantic hurricane database. At one point during the season, September 3 through the following day, a set of three tropical cyclones existed simultaneously.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">1899 San Ciriaco hurricane</span> Category 4 Atlantic hurricane

The 1899 San Ciríaco hurricane, also known as the 1899 Puerto Rico Hurricane or The Great Bahamas Hurricane of 1899, was the longest-lived Atlantic hurricane on record, and the third-longest-lived tropical cyclone globally on record after 1994's Hurricane John in the Pacific Ocean and 2023's Cyclone Freddy in the southern Indian Ocean. It was also one of the deadliest Atlantic hurricanes in recorded history, with an estimated 3,800 fatalities. The third tropical cyclone and first major hurricane of the season, this storm was first observed southwest of Cape Verde on August 3. It slowly strengthened while heading steadily west-northwestward across the Atlantic Ocean and reached hurricane status by late on August 5. During the following 48 hours, the Cape Verde hurricane deepened further, reaching Category 4 on the modern day Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale (SSHWS) before crossing the Leeward Islands on August 7. Later that day, the storm peaked with winds of 150 mph (240 km/h). The storm weakened slightly before making landfall in Guayama, Puerto Rico with winds of 140 mph (220 km/h) on August 8. Several hours later, it emerged into the southwestern Atlantic as a Category 3 hurricane. The system paralleled the north coast of Dominican Republic and then crossed the Bahamas, striking several islands. Then, on August 14, it started to move north while still being located east of Florida. The storm recurved northeastward early the next morning and appeared to be moving out to sea. However, by August 17, it turned back to the northwest and made landfall near Hatteras, North Carolina early on the following day. No stronger hurricane has made landfall on the Outer Banks since the San Ciriaco hurricane.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">1947 Fort Lauderdale hurricane</span> Category 4 Atlantic hurricane in 1947

The 1947 Fort Lauderdale hurricane(Air Weather Service designation: George) was a long-lived and an intense tropical cyclone that affected the Bahamas, southernmost Florida, and the Gulf Coast of the United States in September 1947. The fourth Atlantic tropical cyclone of the year, it formed in the eastern Atlantic Ocean on September 4, becoming a hurricane, the third of the 1947 Atlantic hurricane season, less than a day later. After moving south by west for the next four days, it turned to the northwest and rapidly attained strength beginning on September 9. It reached a peak intensity of 145 mph (233 km/h) on September 15 while approaching the Bahamas. In spite of contemporaneous forecasts that predicted a strike farther north, the storm then turned to the west and poised to strike South Florida, crossing first the northern Bahamas at peak intensity. In the Bahamas, the storm produced a large storm surge and heavy damage, but with no reported fatalities.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">1926 Nassau hurricane</span> Category 4 Atlantic hurricane in 1926

The 1926 Nassau hurricane also known as the San Liborio hurricane or Great Bahamas Hurricane of 1926, in Puerto Rico, was a destructive Category 4 hurricane that affected the Bahamas at peak intensity. Although it weakened considerably before its Florida landfall, it was one of the most severe storms to affect the Bahamian capital Nassau and the island of New Providence in several years until the 1928 Okeechobee hurricane, which occurred just two years later. The storm also delivered flooding rains and loss of crops to the southeastern United States and Florida.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">September 1948 Florida hurricane</span> Category 4 Atlantic hurricane in 1948

The September 1948 Florida hurricane(Air Weather Service designation: Easy) was the most intense tropical cyclone to make landfall in the state since the 1935 Labor Day hurricane. The fourth hurricane and third major hurricane of the season, this storm developed from a tropical wave over the Caribbean Sea on September 18. Early the next day, the system strengthened into a hurricane while moving westward passing close to Grand Cayman, Cayman Islands. Thereafter, it curved northwestward and continued to deepen. By September 20, the system turned northward and later that day made landfall in Zapata Peninsula, Cuba as a Category 3 hurricane on the modern day Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale. Another landfall occurred in Cuba early the next day to the south of Güines. Severe destruction was reported on the island, with winds up to 90 mph (140 km/h) observed in Havana. Over 700 buildings were destroyed. Ten deaths occurred and damage totaled at least $2 million (1948 USD), while other sources estimate "several million dollars."

<span class="mw-page-title-main">1929 Bahamas hurricane</span> Category 4 Atlantic hurricane in 1929

The 1929 Bahamas hurricane was a high-end Category 4 tropical cyclone whose intensity and slow forward speed led to catastrophic damage in the Bahamas in September 1929, particularly on Andros and New Providence islands. Its erratic path and a lack of nearby weather observations made the hurricane difficult to locate and forecast. The storm later made two landfalls in Florida, killing eleven but causing comparatively light damage. Moisture from the storm led to extensive flooding over the Southeastern United States, particularly along the Savannah River. Across its path from the Bahamas to the mouth of the Saint Lawrence River, the hurricane killed 155 people.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">1935 Yankee hurricane</span> Category 2 Atlantic hurricane in 1935

The Yankee hurricane of 1935 was a rare Category 2 hurricane that affected the Bahamas and South Florida in November. The sixth tropical cyclone and fifth hurricane of the 1935 Atlantic hurricane season, it developed 227 miles (365 km) east of Bermuda. It strengthened to a hurricane on November 1, initially posing a threat to the Carolinas. Subsequently, the cyclone turned southwest. It attained its peak intensity on November 3, and it made landfall near Miami Beach on November 4. The hurricane's unusual approach toward Florida and late arrival earned it the nickname of the Yankee Hurricane. The Yankee hurricane was one of three known November hurricanes to make landfall in Florida, with the others being Kate in 1985, and Nicole in 2022.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">1949 Florida hurricane</span> Category 4 Atlantic hurricane in 1949

The 1949 Florida hurricane, also known as the Delray Beach hurricane, caused significant damage in the southern portions of the state late in the month of August. The second recorded tropical cyclone of the annual hurricane season, the system originated from a tropical wave near the northern Leeward Islands on August 23. Already a tropical storm upon initial observations, the cyclone curved west-northwestward and intensified, becoming a hurricane on August 25. Rapid intensification ensued as the storm approached the central Bahamas early on August 26, with the storm reaching Category 4 hurricane strength later that day and peaking with maximum sustained winds of 130 mph (210 km/h) shortly after striking Andros. Late on August 26, the storm made landfall near Lake Worth, Florida, at the same intensity. The cyclone initially weakened quickly after moving inland, falling to Category 1 status early the next day. Shortly thereafter, the system curved northward over the Nature Coast and entered Georgia on August 28, where it weakened to a tropical storm. The storm then accelerated northeastward and became extratropical over New England by August 29. The remnants traversed Atlantic Canada and much of the Atlantic Ocean before dissipating near Ireland on September 1.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">1933 Treasure Coast hurricane</span> Category 4 Atlantic hurricane in 1933

The 1933 Treasure Coast hurricane was the second-most intense tropical cyclone to strike the United States during the active 1933 Atlantic hurricane season. The eleventh tropical storm, fifth hurricane, and the third major hurricane of the season, it formed east-northeast of the Leeward Islands on August 31. The tropical storm moved rapidly west-northwestward, steadily intensifying to a hurricane. It acquired peak winds of 140 mph (220 km/h) and passed over portions of the Bahamas on September 3, including Eleuthera and Harbour Island, causing severe damage to crops, buildings, and infrastructure. Winds over 100 mph (160 km/h) affected many islands in its path, especially those that encountered its center, and many wharves were ruined.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">1948 Miami hurricane</span> Category 4 Atlantic hurricane in 1948

The 1948 Miami hurricane(Air Weather Service designation: Fox) caused no fatalities in Florida, despite moving across the Miami area as a hurricane. The ninth tropical storm and fifth hurricane of the 1948 season, the storm developed from a large low pressure area over the northwestern Caribbean Sea on October 3. The storm intensified into a tropical storm early the next day and a hurricane several hours later. Fox then significantly deepened, peaking with winds of 125 mph (201 km/h) early on October 5. Around that time, Fox made landfall in eastern Pinar del Río Province of Cuba. Fox crossed the island and emerged into the Straits of Florida. Late on October 5, the hurricane struck Bahia Honda Key, Florida, with winds of 105 mph (169 km/h) and two hours later, hit Flamingo. Fox emerged into the Atlantic Ocean near Fort Lauderdale early on October 6. The storm moved northeastward and later curved to the east-northeast. Late on October 7, Fox made landfall on Bermuda with winds of 105 mph (169 km/h). Fox weakened over the next several days and later executed a large cyclonic loop. By October 16, it became extratropical while well east-southeast of Newfoundland.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Effects of the 1928 Okeechobee hurricane in Florida</span> At least 2,500 fatalities in the state of Florida

The effects of the 1928 Okeechobee hurricane in Florida included at least 2,500 fatalities in the state, making this the second deadliest tropical cyclone on record in the contiguous United States, behind only the 1900 Galveston hurricane, as well as the deadliest weather event on the East Coast of the United States. The storm originated from a tropical depression that developed near Senegal on September 6. Traversing westward across the Atlantic Ocean, the cyclone struck the Lesser Antilles, Puerto Rico, and the Bahamas as a powerful hurricane. Early on September 17, the storm made landfall near Palm Beach, Florida, as a Category 4 hurricane on the modern-day Saffir–Simpson scale. After initially moving northwestward across Florida, the cyclone curved north-northeastward near the Tampa Bay area. The hurricane briefly re-emerged into the Atlantic prior to striking South Carolina on September 18 and becoming extratropical over North Carolina on the next day, before the remnants lost their identity over Ontario on September 21.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">1933 Florida–Mexico hurricane</span> Category 1 Atlantic hurricane in 1933

The 1933 Florida–Mexico hurricane was the first of two Atlantic hurricanes to strike the Treasure Coast region of Florida in the very active 1933 Atlantic hurricane season. It was one of two storms that year to inflict hurricane-force winds over South Texas, causing significant damage there; the other occurred in early September. The fifth tropical cyclone of the year, it formed east of the Lesser Antilles on July 24, rapidly strengthening as it moved west-northwest. As it passed over the islands, it attained hurricane status on July 26, producing heavy rains and killing at least six people. Over the next three days, it moved north of the Caribbean, paralleling the Turks and Caicos Islands and the Bahamas. The storm produced extensive damage and at least one drowning as it crossed the Bahamas. On July 29, the cyclone came under the influence of changing steering currents in the atmosphere, which forced the storm into Florida near Hobe Sound a day later. A minimal hurricane at landfall, it caused negligible wind damage as it crossed Florida, but generated heavy rains along its path, causing locally severe flooding. The storm turned west, weakened to below hurricane status, and later exited the state north of Charlotte Harbor on July 31.

References

  1. ↑ "BIBLIOGRAPHY", Fire in the Big House, Ohio University Press, pp. 263–272, 2019-10-08, doi:10.2307/j.ctv224txkx.22 , retrieved 2024-02-21
  2. ↑ "The deadliest disaster to ever happen in each state". MSN. Retrieved 25 April 2023.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Chris Landsea; et al. (April 2014). Documentation of Atlantic Tropical Cyclones Changes in HURDAT (Report). Hurricane Research Division. Archived from the original on June 4, 2011. Retrieved May 2, 2015.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Mitchell, Charles (September 1928). "The West Indian Hurricane of September 10–20, 1928" (PDF). Monthly Weather Review . 56 (9): 347–350. Bibcode:1928MWRv...56..347M. doi: 10.1175/1520-0493(1928)56<347:TWIHOS>2.0.CO;2 . Archived (PDF) from the original on March 26, 2014. Retrieved April 29, 2010.
  5. ↑ "Atlantic hurricane best track (HURDAT version 2)" (Database). United States National Hurricane Center. April 5, 2023. Retrieved December 7, 2024.PD-icon.svg This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
  6. 1 2 3 Orlando Pérez (1970). "Notes on the Tropical Cyclones of Puerto Rico" (PDF). San Juan, Puerto Rico National Weather Service. Archived (PDF) from the original on June 29, 2011. Retrieved May 2, 2015.
  7. ↑ Eliot Kleinberg (2003). Black Cloud: The Great Florida Storm of 1928. Carroll & Graf Publishers. p. 87. ISBN   978-0-7867-1146-8.
  8. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Wayne Neely (2014). The Great Okeechobee Hurricane of 1928. Bloomington, Indiana: iUniverse. ISBN   978-1-4917-5446-7 . Retrieved May 7, 2015.
  9. 1 2 William G. Innanen. "A Condensed History of Montserrat". Archived from the original on February 12, 2006. Retrieved February 27, 2006.
  10. ↑ Chris Landsea, NHC. "FAQ E12: For the USA, what are the 30 highest death toll hurricanes on record?". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on December 25, 2007. Retrieved January 14, 2008.
  11. ↑ National Hurricane Center (1995–1997). "The Deadliest Atlantic Tropical Cyclones, 1492–1996". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on January 28, 2008. Retrieved January 14, 2008.
  12. ↑ Don R. Hoy (1961). Agricultural Land Use of Guadeloupe, Issue 12. Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press. p. 64. Retrieved March 15, 2014.
  13. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Oliver L. Fassig (December 8, 1928). "San Felipe–The Hurricane of September 13, 1928, at San Juan, P.R." (PDF). Monthly Weather Review. 56 (9): 350–352. Bibcode:1928MWRv...56..350F. doi: 10.1175/1520-0493(1928)56<350:SFHOSA>2.0.CO;2 . Archived (PDF) from the original on March 26, 2009. Retrieved April 29, 2010.
  14. ↑ Landsea, Chris; Anderson, Craig; Bredemeyer, William; et al. (January 2022). Continental United States Hurricanes (Detailed Description). Re-Analysis Project (Report). Miami, Florida: Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory, Hurricane Research Division . Retrieved December 7, 2024.
  15. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Mújica-Baker, Frank. Huracanes y tormentas que han afectado a Puerto Rico (PDF) (Report) (in Spanish). Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico, Agencia Estatal para el Manejo de Emergencias y Administración de Desastres. pp. 3–4, 7–10, 12–14. Archived (PDF) from the original on September 24, 2015. Retrieved October 12, 2018.
  16. 1 2 3 4 5 Roth, David M. (January 3, 2023). "Tropical Cyclone Point Maxima". Tropical Cyclone Rainfall Data. United States Weather Prediction Center. Retrieved January 6, 2023.PD-icon.svg This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
  17. ↑ "Hurricane Maria Live Updates: In Puerto Rico, the Storm 'Destroyed Us'". The New York Times. Retrieved 22 September 2017.
  18. ↑ Pasch, Richard; Reinhart, Brad; Alaka, Laura (March 23, 2023). Tropical Cyclone Report Hurricane Fiona (PDF) (Report). Miami, Florida: National Hurricane Center. Retrieved March 23, 2023.
  19. ↑ Roth, David M (June 27, 2007). "Tropical Storm Isabel – October 4 – 16, 1985". United States Weather Prediction Center. Retrieved May 1, 2012.
  20. ↑ Higgs, Ralph L (1954). "Severe Floods of October 12–15, 1954 in Puerto Rico" (PDF). Monthly Weather Review. 82 (10). American Meteorological Society: 301–304. Bibcode:1954MWRv...82..301H. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1954)082<0301:SFOOIP>2.0.CO;2. ISSN   1520-0493 . Retrieved January 8, 2008.
  21. ↑ U.S. Southern Command. "Hurricane Preparedness: History". U.S. Army. Archived from the original on December 17, 2007. Retrieved January 14, 2008.
  22. ↑ Stuart B. Schwartz (Winter 2007). "The 1928 Hurricane and the Shaping of the Circum-Caribbean Region". ReVista: Harvard Review of Latin America. The David Rockefeller Center for Latin American Studies, Harvard University. Archived from the original on 2015-09-20. Retrieved 2015-06-16.
  23. ↑ Hurricane Research Division (2008). "All U.S. Hurricanes (1851–2007)". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on September 21, 2008. Retrieved April 6, 2008.
  24. ↑ "The Storm: 1928 Remembered" (PDF). Historical Society of Palm Beach County. 2008. p. 9. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 4, 2016. Retrieved July 24, 2015.
  25. 1 2 3 4 5 6 "Palm Beach Hurricane—92 Views". Chicago, Illinois: American Autochrome Company. 1928. Archived from the original on February 7, 2016. Retrieved June 27, 2015.
  26. ↑ "Hurricane Hits City Sunday". Fort Lauderdale Daily News. September 17, 1928. Archived from the original on October 12, 2012. Retrieved May 9, 2015.
  27. 1 2 "36 Lives Lost is Storm Toll Over Florida" (PDF). Miami Herald . September 18, 1928. Archived (PDF) from the original on February 22, 2016. Retrieved May 8, 2015.
  28. ↑ "Few Buildings Escape Damage From Hurricane". The Palm Beach Post. September 18, 1928. Archived from the original on January 3, 2017. Retrieved July 5, 2017– via Newspapers.com. Open Access logo PLoS transparent.svg
  29. ↑ National Weather Service (29 June 2009). "Memorial Web Page for the 1928 Okeechobee Hurricane". srh.noaa.gov. Miami, Florida: National Weather Service. Archived from the original on 9 August 2016. Retrieved 21 February 2015.
  30. 1 2 3 4 Jay Barnes (2007). Florida's Hurricane History . University of North Carolina Press. p.  129. ISBN   978-0-8078-3068-0. Archived from the original on September 15, 2019. Retrieved May 12, 2015. florida's hurricane history.
  31. ↑ The Storm: 1928 Remembered (Teacher's Guide) (PDF). Historical Society of Palm Beach County. 2008. p. 21. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 4, 2016. Retrieved March 10, 2015.
  32. ↑ Jeff Klinkenberg (July 12, 1992). "A storm of memories". St. Petersburg Times. Archived from the original on July 17, 2012. Retrieved May 6, 2015.
  33. 1 2 3 Nicole Sterghos Brochu (2003). "Florida's Forgotten Storm: the Hurricane of 1928". South Florida Sun-Sentinel. Archived from the original on September 16, 2012. Retrieved April 6, 2008.
  34. ↑ "Span Blown Out By Storm, Fished From River and Replaced". The Tampa Tribune . Okeechobee, Florida. Associated Press. January 10, 1929. Archived from the original on May 18, 2015. Retrieved May 10, 2015.
  35. 1 2 "Okeechobee Deaths Laid To Big Wave" (PDF). The Tampa Tribune. September 19, 1928. Archived (PDF) from the original on May 18, 2015. Retrieved May 13, 2015.
  36. ↑ "Storm Cannot Be Exaggerated Says Red Cross" (PDF). The Tampa Tribune. September 19, 1928. Archived (PDF) from the original on May 18, 2015. Retrieved May 13, 2015.
  37. ↑ Lee Allyn Davis (January 1, 2009). Natural Disasters. New York City, New York: Infobase Publishing. p. 296. ISBN   978-1-4381-1878-9 . Retrieved September 9, 2015.
  38. ↑ Will, Lawrence (1964). A Cracker History of Okeechobee (First ed.). Great Outdoors. p. 212.
  39. ↑ "Okeelanta". Historical Society of Palm Beach County. 2009. Archived from the original on May 30, 2015. Retrieved June 27, 2015.
  40. ↑ Mike Abrams (May 12, 1970). "Bean City". The Palm Beach Post. Bean City, Florida. Archived from the original on September 9, 2017. Retrieved July 5, 2017– via Newspapers.com. Open Access logo PLoS transparent.svg
  41. 1 2 Jack Dadswell (September 18, 1928). "Storm Effects Told In Survey Made By Radio". St. Petersburg Times . p. 2. Archived from the original on March 11, 2016. Retrieved July 24, 2015.
  42. ↑ "Storm Passes To North With Force Lessened" (PDF). The Tampa Tribune. Lakeland, Florida. Archived (PDF) from the original on May 18, 2015. Retrieved June 27, 2015.
  43. ↑ "Smack Around, Schooner Sinks During Storm" (PDF). The Tampa Tribune. September 18, 1928. Archived (PDF) from the original on March 4, 2016. Retrieved June 27, 2015.
  44. ↑ Alice L. and Greg E. Luckhardt (December 10, 2013). "Historical Vignettes: Chillingworth's Palm City Development". Treasure Coast Newspapers . Stuart, Florida. Retrieved July 25, 2015.
  45. ↑ "$50,000 Damage Caused to Lakeland Property" (PDF). The Tampa Tribune. Lakeland, Florida. Archived (PDF) from the original on May 18, 2015. Retrieved June 27, 2015.
  46. ↑ "Jacksonville and Brunswick, Ga. are Whipped by Winds". St. Petersburg Times. Associated Press. September 18, 1928. p. 1. Archived from the original on April 26, 2016. Retrieved July 24, 2015.
  47. ↑ United States Army Corps of Engineers (1945). Storm Total Rainfall In The United States. War Department. p. SA 2–15.
  48. ↑ David Roth and Hugh Cobb. "Virginia Hurricane History". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on January 8, 2008. Retrieved January 14, 2008.
  49. ↑ Blake, Eric S; Landsea, Christopher W; Gibney, Ethan J (August 10, 2011). The deadliest, costliest and most intense United States tropical cyclones from 1851 to 2010 (and other frequently requested hurricane facts) (PDF) (NOAA Technical Memorandum NWS NHC-6). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. p. 47. Archived (PDF) from the original on May 17, 2024. Retrieved August 10, 2011.
  50. ↑ "Ascertainment of the Estimated Excess Mortality from Hurricane María in Puerto Rico" (PDF). Milken Institute of Public Health. August 27, 2018. Archived (PDF) from the original on August 29, 2018. Retrieved August 28, 2018.
  51. ↑ "33 Known Dead in Storm Area; Troops to Aid" (PDF). The Tampa Tribune. September 18, 1928. Archived (PDF) from the original on May 18, 2015. Retrieved May 12, 2015.
  52. ↑ "Miami Prompt to Give Aid in Stricken Area" (PDF). Miami Herald. September 18, 1928. Archived (PDF) from the original on February 22, 2016. Retrieved May 12, 2015.
  53. 1 2 3 "The Hurricane of 1928". Historical Society of Palm Beach County. 2009. Archived from the original on March 12, 2015. Retrieved May 5, 2015.
  54. 1 2 Deborah Sharp (September 4, 2003). "Storm's path remains scarred after 75 years". USA Today. Archived from the original on May 24, 2011. Retrieved March 10, 2015.
  55. ↑ "All Time 100 Novels". Time. October 16, 2005. Archived from the original on April 25, 2010. Retrieved September 16, 2017.
  56. ↑ "Florida Properties – African American History Month". National Park Service. Archived from the original on June 19, 2015. Retrieved May 5, 2015.
  57. ↑ Betty Nelander (2008). "The Hurricane of 1928: Category 4 hurricane scarred Palm Beach". Archived from the original on September 20, 2008. Retrieved June 27, 2008.
  58. 1 2 "Lake Okeechobee and The Okeechobee Waterway". U.S. Army Corps of Engineers South Florida Operations Office. Archived from the original on June 9, 2007. Retrieved August 3, 2008.
  59. ↑ "Lake Okeechobee and the Herbert Hoover Dike" (PDF). U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Jacksonville District. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 3, 2008. Retrieved August 3, 2008.
  60. ↑ "San Ciriaco Hurricane". East Carolina University, RENCI Engagement Center. Archived from the original on 2019-10-19. Retrieved 2018-10-12.

Preceded by Costliest Atlantic hurricanes on Record
1928 (Tied with 1926 Great Miami)		Succeeded by
1938 New England
(Long Island Express)
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.