The 1900 Galveston hurricane,[1] also known as the Great Galveston hurricane and the Galveston Flood,and known regionally as the Great Storm of 1900 or the 1900 Storm,[2][3] is the deadliestnatural disaster in United States history.[4] The strongest storm of the 1900 Atlantic hurricane season,it left between 6,000 and 12,000fatalities in the United States;the number most cited in official reports is 8,000. Most of these deaths occurred in and near Galveston,Texas,after the storm surge inundated the coastline and the island city with 8 to 12ft (2.4 to 3.7m) of water. As of 2024,it remains the fourth deadliest Atlantic hurricane on record,behind Hurricane Fifi of 1974. In addition to the number killed,the storm destroyed about 7,000buildings of all uses in Galveston,which included 3,636demolished homes;every dwelling in the city suffered some degree of damage. The hurricane left approximately 10,000people in the city homeless,out of a total population of fewer than 38,000. The disaster ended the Golden Era of Galveston,as the hurricane alarmed potential investors,who turned to Houston instead. In response to the storm,three engineers designed and oversaw plans to raise the Gulf of Mexico shoreline of Galveston Island by 17ft (5.2m) and erect a 10mi (16km)seawall.
On August27,1900,a ship east of the Windward Islands detected a tropical cyclone,the first observed that year. The system proceeded to move steadily west-northwestward and entered the northeastern Caribbean on August30. It made landfall in the Dominican Republic as a weak tropical storm on September2. It weakened slightly while crossing Hispaniola,before re-emerging into the Caribbean Sea later that day. On September3,the cyclone struck modern-day Santiago de Cuba Province and then slowly drifted along the southern coast of Cuba. Upon reaching the Gulf of Mexico on September6,the storm strengthened into a hurricane. Significant intensification followed and the system peaked as a Category 4 hurricane with maximum sustained winds of 145mph (235km/h) on September8. Early on the next day,it made landfall to the south of Houston.[nb 1] The cyclone weakened quickly after moving inland and fell to tropical storm intensity late on September9. The storm turned east-northeastward and became extratropical over Iowa on September11. The extratropical system strengthened while accelerating across the Midwestern United States,New England,and Eastern Canada before reaching the Gulf of Saint Lawrence on September13. After striking Newfoundland later that day,the extratropical storm entered the far North Atlantic Ocean and weakened,with the remnants last observed near Iceland on September15.
The great storm brought flooding and severe thunderstorms to portions of the Caribbean,especially Cuba and Jamaica. It is likely that much of South Florida experienced tropical storm-force winds,though mostly minor damage occurred. Hurricane-force winds and storm surge inundated portions of southern Louisiana,though the cyclone left no significant structural damage or fatalities in the state. The hurricane brought strong winds and storm surge to a large portion of east Texas,with Galveston suffering the brunt of the impact. Farther north,the storm and its remnants continued to produce heavy rains and gusty winds,which downed telegraph wires,signs,and trees in several states. Fatalities occurred in other states,including fifteen in Ohio,two in Illinois,two in New York,one in Massachusetts,and one in Missouri. Damage from the storm throughout the U.S. exceeded US$34million.[nb 2] The remnants also brought severe impact to Canada. In Ontario,damage reached about C$1.35million,with CAD$1million to crops.[nb 3] The remnants of the hurricane caused at least 52deaths–and possibly as many as 232deaths–in Canada,mostly due to sunken vessels near Newfoundland and the French territory of Saint-Pierre. Throughout its path,the storm caused more than $35.4million in damage. ($1.3 billion in 2023)[nb 4]
Meteorological history
Map plotting the storm's track and intensity,according to the Saffir–Simpson scale
The storm is believed to have originated from a tropical wave which moved off the west coast of Africa and then emerged into the Atlantic Ocean.[8] However, this is not completely certain because of the limited observational methods available to contemporary meteorologists, with ship reports being the only reliable tool for observing hurricanes.[9] The first formal sighting of the tropical storm occurred on August27, about 1,000mi (1,600km) east of the Windward Islands, when a ship encountered an area of unsettled weather.[5][8] Over the next couple of days, the system moved west-northwestwards and is thought to have maintained its intensity as a weak tropical storm, before it passed through the Leeward Islands and entered the Caribbean Sea on August31.[5]
On September1, Father Reese Gangoite, the director of the Belen College Observatory in Havana, Cuba, noted that the storm was in its formative stages, with only vague indications of a small tropical cyclone to the southwest of Saint Croix.[10] During that day, the system passed to the south of Puerto Rico before it made landfall near Baní, Dominican Republic, early on September2.[5] Moving west-northwestward, the storm crossed the island of Hispaniola and entered into the Windward Passage near Saint-Marc, Haiti, several hours later.[5] The system made landfall on Cuba near Santiago de Cuba during September3, before it moved slowly west-northwestward across the island and emerged into Straits of Florida as a tropical storm on September5.[5] As the system emerged into the Straits of Florida, Gangoite observed a large, persistent halo around the moon, while the sky turned deep red and cirrus clouds moved northwards. This indicated to him that the tropical storm had intensified and that the prevailing winds were moving the system towards the coast of Texas.[11] However, the United States Weather Bureau (as it was then called) disagreed with this forecast, as they expected the system to recurve and make landfall in Florida before impacting the American East Coast.[11][12] An area of high pressure over the Florida Keys ultimately moved the system northwestward into the Gulf of Mexico, where favorable conditions such as warm sea surface temperatures allowed the storm to intensify into a hurricane.[5][11]
Hurricane track from September 1 to 10
In the eastern Gulf of Mexico on September6, the ship Louisiana encountered the hurricane, and its captain, T. P. Halsey, estimated that the system had wind speeds of 100mph (160km/h).[13] The hurricane continued to strengthen significantly while heading west-northwestward across the Gulf. On September7, the system reached its peak intensity with estimated sustained wind speeds of 145mph (235km/h), which made it equivalent to a Category 4 hurricane on the modern-day Saffir–Simpson scale.[5] That day, the Weather Bureau realized that the storm was continuing west-northwestward across the Gulf of Mexico, rather than turning northward over Florida and the East Coast as it had predicted. However, Weather Bureau director Willis Moore insisted that the cyclone was not of hurricane intensity.[11] The hurricane weakened slightly on September8 and recurved to the northwest as it approached the coast of Texas, while the Weather Bureau office in Galveston began observing hurricane-force winds by 22:00UTC.[5][14]
The cyclone made landfall around 8:00p.m CST on September8 (02:00UTC on September9) to the south of Houston as a Category4 hurricane.[5] While crossing Galveston Island and West Bay, the eye passed southwest of the city of Galveston.[15] The hurricane quickly weakened after moving inland, falling to tropical storm intensity late on September9.[5] The storm lost tropical characteristics and transitioned into an extratropical cyclone over Iowa by 12:00UTC on September11.[5] Moving rapidly east-northeastward, the extratropical system re-intensified, becoming the equivalent of a Category1 hurricane over Ontario on September12.[5] The extratropical remnants reached the Gulf of Saint Lawrence early the following day.[5] After crossing Newfoundland and entering the far northern Atlantic hours later, the remnants of the hurricane weakened and were last noted near Iceland on September15 where the storm finally dissipated.[5]
The city of Galveston, formally founded in 1839, had weathered numerous storms, all of which the city survived with ease. In the late 19th century, Galveston was a boomtown with the population increasing from 29,084people in 1890 to 37,788people in 1900.[16][17] The city was the fourth largest municipality in terms of population in the state of Texas in 1900, and had among the highest per capita income rates in the U.S.[18] Galveston had many ornate business buildings in a downtown section called The Strand, which was considered the "Wall Street of the Southwest".[19] The city's position on the natural harbor of Galveston Bay along the Gulf of Mexico made it the center of trade in Texas, and one of the busiest ports in the nation.[20] With this prosperity came a sense of complacency,[21] as residents believed any future storms would be no worse than previous events.[nb 5] In fact, Isaac Cline, director of the Weather Bureau's Galveston office, wrote an 1891 article in the Galveston Daily News that it would be impossible for a hurricane of significant strength to strike Galveston Island.[23]
A quarter of a century earlier, the nearby town of Indianola on Matagorda Bay was undergoing its own boom.[24] Then in 1875, a powerful hurricane blew through and nearly destroyed the town. Indianola was rebuilt,[25] though a second hurricane in 1886 caused most of the town's residents to move elsewhere.[26] Many Galveston residents took the destruction of Indianola as an object lesson on the threat posed by hurricanes. Galveston is built on a low, flat island, little more than a large sandbar along the Gulf Coast. These residents proposed a seawall be constructed to protect the city, but the majority of the population and the city's government dismissed their concerns.[27] Cline further argued in his 1891 article in the Daily News that a seawall was not needed due to his belief that a strong hurricane would not strike the island. As a result, the seawall was not built, and development activities on the island actively increased its vulnerability to storms. Sand dunes along the shore were cut down to fill low areas in the city, removing what little barrier there was to the Gulf of Mexico.[27]
Preparations
On September4, the Weather Bureau's Galveston office began receiving warnings from the Bureau's central office in Washington, D.C., that a tropical disturbance had moved northward over Cuba. At the time, they discouraged the use of terms such as "hurricane" or "tornado" to avoid panicking residents in the path of any storm event. The Weather Bureau forecasters had no way of knowing the storm's trajectory, as Weather Bureau director Willis Moore implemented a policy to block telegraph reports from Cuban meteorologists at the Belen Observatory in Havana– considered one of the most advanced meteorological institutions in the world at the time– due to tensions in the aftermath of the Spanish–American War. Moore also changed protocol to force local Weather Bureau offices to seek authorization from the central office before issuing storm warnings.[11]
Weather Bureau forecasters believed that the storm had begun a northward curve into Florida and that it would eventually turn northeastward and emerge over the Atlantic.[11] As a result, the central office of the Weather Bureau issued a storm warning in Florida from Cedar Key to Miami on September5.[28] By the following day, a hurricane warning was in effect along the coast from Cedar Key to Savannah, Georgia, while storm warnings were displayed from Charleston, South Carolina, to Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, as well as from Pensacola, Florida, to New Orleans, Louisiana.[29] Cuban forecasters adamantly disagreed with the Weather Bureau, saying the hurricane would continue west. One Cuban forecaster predicted the hurricane would continue into central Texas near San Antonio.[12]
In Galveston on the morning of September8, the swells persisted despite only partly cloudy skies. Largely because of the unremarkable weather, few residents saw cause for concern.[30] Few people evacuated across Galveston's bridges to the mainland,[31] and the majority of the population was unconcerned by the rain clouds that began rolling in by midmorning.[30] According to his memoirs, Isaac Cline personally traveled by horse along the beach and other low-lying areas to warn people of the storm's approach.[32] However, these accounts by Cline and his brother, Galveston meteorologist Joseph L. Cline, have been in dispute since.[33][34] Although Isaac Cline is credited with issuing a hurricane warning without permission from the Bureau's central office,[35] author Erik Larson points to his earlier insistence that a seawall was unnecessary and his notion that an intense hurricane could not strike the island, with Cline even considering it "simply an absurd delusion" to believe otherwise.[36] Further, according to Larson, no other survivors are known to have corroborated these accounts.[34]
Impact
Caribbean
Antigua reported a severe thunderstorm passing over on August30, with lower barometric pressures and 2.6in (66.0mm) of rain on the island. In Puerto Rico, the storm produced winds up to 43mph (69km/h) at San Juan.[10] In Jamaica, heavy rainfall from the storm caused all rivers to swell. Floodwaters severely damaged banana plantations and washed away miles of railroads. Damage estimates ranged in the thousands of British pounds.[37] Heavy rains fell in Cuba in association with the cyclone, including a peak 24-hour total of 12.58in (319.5mm) in the city of Santiago de Cuba.[38] The city experienced its worst weather since 1877. The southern end of the city was submerged with about 5ft (1.5m) of water. Firefighters and police rescued and aided stranded residents. St. George, a German steamer, ran aground at Daiquirí.[39] A telegraph from the mayor of Trinidad, who was asking for assistance from the U.S. occupation government, indicated that the storm destroyed all crops and left many people destitute.[40]
The Great Galveston hurricane made landfall on September8, 1900, near Galveston, Texas. It had estimated winds of 140mph (225km/h) at landfall, making the cyclone a Category 4 storm on the modern day Saffir–Simpson scale.[5] The hurricane caused great loss of life, with a death toll of between 6,000 and 12,000people;[31] the number most cited in official reports is 8,000,[26][43] giving the storm the third-highest number of deaths of all Atlantic hurricanes, after the Great Hurricane of 1780 and Hurricane Mitch in 1998.[44] The Galveston hurricane of 1900 is the deadliest natural disaster to strike the United States.[26][43] This loss of life can be attributed to the fact that officials for the Weather Bureau in Galveston brushed off the reports and they did not realize the threat.[45]
More than US$34million in damage occurred throughout the United States,[14][46] with about US$30million in Galveston County, Texas, alone.[14] If a similar storm struck in 2010, damage would total approximately US$104.33billion (2010USD), based on normalization, a calculation that takes into account changes in inflation, wealth, and population.[43] In comparison, the costliest United States hurricanes –Hurricane Katrina in 2005 and Hurricane Harvey in 2017 – both caused about US$125billion in damage.[47]
The hurricane occurred before the practice of assigning official code names to tropical storms was instituted, and thus it is commonly referred to under a variety of descriptive names. Typical names for the storm include the Galveston hurricane of 1900,[48] the Great Galveston hurricane,[1] and, especially in older documents and publications, the Galveston Flood.[49] It is often referred to by Galveston locals as the Great Storm of 1900 or the 1900 Storm.[2][3]
Florida to Louisiana
Map of rainfall totals in Florida
Portions of South Florida experienced tropical storm-force winds, with a sustained wind speed of 48mph (77km/h) in Jupiter and 40mph (64km/h) in Key West.[10] The hurricane left "considerable damage" in the Palm Beach area, according to The New York Times. Many small boats were torn from their moorings and capsized. The bulkhead of the pier was washed away, while docks and several seawalls were damaged.[50] Rainfall in the state peaked at 5.7in (140mm) in Hypoluxo.[51] High winds in North Florida downed telegraph lines between Jacksonville and Pensacola.[52] In Mississippi, the city of Pass Christian recorded winds of 58mph (93km/h).[53] Tides produced by the storm inundated about 200ft (61m) of railroad tracks in Pascagoula (then known as Scranton), while a quarantine station on Ship Island was swept away.[54]
In Louisiana, the storm produced gale-force winds as far inland as DeRidder and as far east as New Orleans, with hurricane-force winds observed in Cameron Parish. Along the coast, storm surge inundated Johnson Bayou, while tides at some locations reached their highest level since the 1875 Indianola hurricane.[55] Winds and storm surge caused severe damage to rice crops, with at least 25% destroyed throughout the state.[56] The community of Pointe à la Hache experienced a near-total loss of rice crops.[57] Farther east, roads were flooded by storm surge in the communities of Gretna and Harvey near New Orleans, leaving the streets impassable via horses. Winds downed telegraph lines in the southeastern Louisiana in the vicinity of Port Eads.[54] Two men were initially presumed to have drowned after sailing away from Fort St. Philip and not returning in a timely manner,[58] but they were both later found alive.[59]
Texas
Floating wreckage near Texas City – typical scene for miles along the water front
Nearly all of the damage in the United States occurred in Texas, with much of the damage in Galveston.[26] However, many communities outside of Galveston also suffered serious damage and it caused many casualties and affected many families economically,[46] with several cities reporting a near or complete loss of all buildings or homes, including Alta Loma, Alvin,[60]Angleton,[61]Brazoria, Brookshire,[60]Chenango,[62]El Campo,[61]Pearland,[60] and Richmond.[61] Throughout Texas – in areas other than Galveston – at least $3million in damage occurred to cotton crops, $75,000 to telegraph and telephone poles, and $60,000 to railroads.[46]
At Alvin, 8.05in (204mm) of rain fell on September8, the highest 24-hour total for that city in the month of September.[26] The city suffered nine fatalities and about $50,000 in damage.[46] In West Columbia, the storm destroyed the old capitol building of the former Republic of Texas.[26] Eight deaths occurred in the city.[46] In Quintana, the city experienced extensive damage during this storm and a flood in 1899, causing portions of the community to be abandoned.[26] Throughout Brazoria County alone, the hurricane caused nearly $200,000 in damage and 47deaths.[46]Houston also experienced significant damage. The hurricane wrought damage to many buildings, including a Masonic temple, a railroad powerhouse, an opera house, a courthouse, and many businesses,[63] churches, homes, hotels, and school buildings.[64] Streets were littered with branches from shade trees and downed electrical wires, leaving several roads completely impassable to vehicles.[63] The city of Houston suffered about $250,000 in damage and two deaths,[46] one of which occurred when a man was struck by falling timber.[64]
A train heading for Galveston left Houston on the morning of September8 at 9:45a.m. CST (15:45UTC).[65] It found the tracks washed out, and passengers were forced to transfer to a relief train on parallel tracks to complete their journey. Even then, debris on the track slowed the train's progress to a crawl. The 95travelers on the train from Beaumont found themselves at the Bolivar Peninsula waiting for the ferry that would carry them to the island. When it arrived, the high seas forced the ferry captain to give up on his attempt to dock. The train crew attempted to return the way they had come, but rising water blocked the train's path.[66] Ten refugees from the Beaumont train sought shelter at the Point Bolivar lighthouse with 190residents of Port Bolivar who were already there. The 85 who stayed with the train died when the storm surge overran the tops of the cars, while every person inside the lighthouse survived.[67]
Galveston
First news from Galveston just received by train that could get no closer to the bay shore than 6mi[9.7km] where the prairie was strewn with debris and dead bodies. About 200corpses counted from the train. Large steamship stranded 2mi[3.2km] inland. Nothing could be seen of Galveston. Loss of life and property undoubtedly most appalling. Weather clear and bright here with gentle southeast wind.
—G.L. Vaughan Manager, Western Union, Houston, in a telegram to the Chief of the U.S. Weather Bureau on the day after the hurricane, September 9, 1900[68]
At the time of the 1900 hurricane, the highest point in the city of Galveston was only 8.7ft (2.7m) above sea level.[23] The hurricane brought with it a storm surge of over 15ft (4.6m) that washed over the entire island. Storm surge and tides began flooding the city by the early morning hours of September8. Water rose steadily from 3:00p.m. (21:00UTC) until approximately 7:30p.m. (01:30UTC September9), when eyewitness accounts indicated that water rose about 4ft (1.2m) in just four seconds. An additional 5ft (1.5m) of water had flowed into portions of the city by 8:30p.m. (02:30UTC September9).[14] The cyclone dropped 9in (230mm) of precipitation in Galveston on September8, setting a record for the most rainfall for any 24-hour period in the month of September in the city's history.[69]
The highest measured wind speed was 100mph (160km/h) just after 6:15p.m. on September8 (00:15 UTC September9), but the Weather Bureau's anemometer was blown off the building shortly after that measurement was recorded.[23] Contemporaneous estimates placed the maximum sustained wind speed at 120mph (190km/h). However, survivors reported observing bricks, slate, timbers, and other heavy objects becoming airborne, indicating that winds were likely stronger.[70] Later estimates placed the hurricane at the higher Category4 classification on the Saffir–Simpson scale.[5] The lowest recorded barometric pressure was 964.4mbar (28.48inHg), but this was subsequently adjusted to the storm's official lowest measured central pressure of about 936mbar (27.6inHg).[31][5]
Searching for bodies in Galveston in the aftermath of the storm of 1900. At the time this film was shot, the stench of hundreds of bodies could be smelled for miles. One body was discovered (but not filmed) while the camera crew was present.
Few streets in the city escaped wind damage and all streets suffered water damage,[71] with much of the destruction caused by storm surge. All bridges connecting the island to the mainland were washed away, while approximately 15mi (24km) of railroad track was destroyed. Winds and storm surge also downed electrical, telegraph, and telephone wires. The surge swept buildings off their foundations and dismantled them. Many buildings and homes destroyed other structures after being pushed into them by the waves,[72] which even demolished structures built to withstand hurricanes.[70] Every home in Galveston suffered damage, with 3,636homes destroyed.[14] Approximately 10,000people in the city were left homeless, out of a total population of nearly 38,000.[73] Portrait and landscape artist Verner Moore White who moved from Galveston the day before the hurricane and survived, had his studio and much of his portfolio destroyed.[74] The Tremont Hotel, where hundreds of people sought refuge during the storm,[75] was severely damaged.[71] All public buildings also suffered damage, including city hall – which was completely deroofed –[72] a hospital, a city gas works, a city water works, and the custom house.[71] The Grand Opera House also sustained extensive damage, but was quickly rebuilt.[76]
Three schools and St. Mary's University were nearly destroyed. Many places of worship in the city also received severe damage or were completely demolished.[71] Of the 39churches in Galveston, 25experienced complete destruction, while the others received some degree of damage.[77] During the storm, the St. Mary's Orphans Asylum, owned by the Sisters of Charity of the Incarnate Word, was occupied by 93children and 10sisters. As tides began approaching the property, the sisters moved the children into the girl's dorm, as it was newer and sturdier. Realizing they were under threat, the sisters had the children repeatedly sing Queen of the Waves to calm them. As the collapse of the building appeared imminent, the sisters used a clothesline to tie themselves to six to eight children. The building eventually collapsed. Only three of the children and none of the sisters survived.[78] The few buildings that survived, mostly solidly built mansions and houses along the Strand District, are today maintained as tourist attractions.[79]
Map illustrating the devastation in Galveston
Early property damage estimates were placed at $25million.[71] However, itemized estimates from 1901 based on assessments conducted by the Galveston News, the Galveston chamber of commerce, a relief committee, and multiple insurance companies indicated that the storm caused just over $17million in damage throughout Galveston, including about $8.44million to residential properties, $500,000 to churches, $656,000 to wharves and shipping properties, $580,000 to manufacturing plants, $397,000 to mercantile buildings, $1.4million to store merchandise, $670,000 to railroads and telegraph and telephone services, $416,000 to products in shipment, $336,000 to municipality properties, $243,000 to county properties, and $3.16million to United States government properties. The total also included $115,000 in damage to schools and approximately $100,000 in damage to roads.[77]
The area of destruction – an area in which nothing remained standing after the storm – consisted of approximately 1,900 acres (768.9ha) of land and was arc-shaped, with complete demolition of structures in the west, south, and eastern portions of the city, while the north-central section of the city suffered the least amount of damage.[71] In the immediate aftermath of the storm, a 3mi (4.8km) long, 30ft (9.1m) wall of debris was situated in the middle of the island.[72] As severe as the damage to the city's buildings was, the death toll was even greater. Because of the destruction of the bridges to the mainland and the telegraph lines, no word of the city's destruction was able to reach the mainland at first.[80]
Many who died had their corpses piled onto carts for burial at sea.
On the morning of September9, one of the few ships at the Galveston wharfs to survive the storm, the Pherabe, set sail and arrived in Texas City on the western side of Galveston Bay with a group of messengers from the city. When they reached the telegraph office in Houston early on September10, a short message was sent to Texas GovernorJoseph D. Sayers and U.S. President William McKinley: "I have been deputized by the mayor and Citizen's Committee of Galveston to inform you that the city of Galveston is in ruins." The messengers reported an estimated five hundred dead; this was initially considered to be an exaggeration.[81] The citizens of Houston knew a powerful storm had blown through and had prepared to provide assistance. Workers set out by rail and ship for the island almost immediately. Rescuers arrived to find the city completely destroyed.[82]
A survey conducted by the Morrison and Fourmy Company in early 1901 indicated a population loss of 8,124, though the company believed that about 2,000people left the city after the storm and never returned. On this basis, the death toll is no less than 6,000,[83] while estimates range up to 12,000.[31] It is believed 8,000people—20% of the island's population—had lost their lives.[82] Most had drowned or been crushed as the waves pounded the debris that had been their homes hours earlier.[84] A number of fatalities also occurred after strong winds turned debris into projectiles.[14] Many survived the storm itself but died after several days being trapped under the wreckage of the city, with rescuers unable to reach them. The rescuers could hear the screams of the survivors as they walked on the debris trying to rescue those they could.[84] More people were killed in this single storm than the total of those killed in at least the next two deadliest tropical cyclones that have struck the United States since.[85] The Galveston hurricane of 1900 remains the deadliest natural disaster in U.S. history.[26] The disaster did not even spare the buried dead; a number of coffins, including reportedly that of actor-playwright Charles Francis Coghlan who had died in Galveston the previous year, were washed out of the local cemetery to sea by the tidal storm surge.[86]
Midwest
After moving northward from Texas into Oklahoma, the storm produced winds of near 30mph (48km/h) at Oklahoma City.[87] The extratropical remnants of the cyclone then re-intensified to the equivalence of a tropical storm and continued to strengthen,[5] bringing strong winds to the Midwestern United States. High winds in Missouri toppled a brick wall under construction in St. Joseph, killing a man and severely injuring another.[88] In Illinois, particularly hard hit was the city of Chicago, which experienced wind gusts up to 84mph (135km/h).[10] Thousands of dollars in damage occurred to roofs, trees, signs, and windows. Several people were injured and two deaths occurred in the city, one from a live wire and the other was a drowning after a boat capsized in Lake Michigan.[89] In Wisconsin, many weather stations in the northern and central portions of the state recorded at least 1in (25mm) of rainfall, including a peak total of 4.25in (108mm) in Shawano.[90] Heavy rains fell in parts of Minnesota. The Minneapolis–Saint Paul area recorded 4.23in (107mm) of precipitation over a period of 16hours. Farther north, several washouts occurred, especially in the northern areas of the state. A bridge, along with a few train cars, were swept away during a washout in Cold Spring.[91]
In Michigan, the storm produced winds around 60mph (97km/h) at Muskegon. Tides from Lake Michigan were the highest in several months. According to The Times Herald, the city of Marshall experienced "the severest windstorm of the season", which uprooted trees and damaged several buildings. Throughout the state, winds left at least $12,000 in losses to peach orchards, with many peach trees uprooted. Significant losses to apples and pears also occurred.[92] Rough seas in Lake Erie resulted in several maritime incidents offshore Ohio. The John B. Lyon, a 255ft (77.7m) steamer, capsized about 5mi (8.0km) north of Conneaut. Fourteen out of sixteen crew members drowned. A survivor suggested that the ship being overloaded may have been a factor in its sinking. About 10mi (16km) farther north, the schooner Dundee sank, causing at least one death. In another incident nearby, the steamer City of Erie, with about 300passengers aboard, was hit by a wave that swept over the bulwarks. The engine slowed and the steamers later reached safety in Canada with no loss of lives.[93] In Toledo, strong winds disrupted telegraph services. Winds also blew water out of parts of the Maumee River and Maumee Bay to such an extent that they were impassable by vessels due to low water levels. A number of vessels were buried in mud several feet deep, while about 20others were beached.[94]
New York
A destroyed iron works in Buffalo
Of the many cities in New York affected by the remnants of the hurricane, Buffalo was among the hardest hit. There, winds peaked at 78mph (126km/h), downing hundreds of electrical, telegraph, and telephone wires,[95] while numerous trees toppled and some branches fell onto roadways. An oil derrick blew away and landed on the roof of a house, crushing the roof and nearly killing the occupants.[96] A newly built iron works building was virtually destroyed, causing a loss of about $10,000.[97] At the Pan-American Exposition, the storm damaged several structures, including part of the government building, while two towers were destroyed. Losses at the exposition alone were conservatively estimated at $75,000.[98] One death occurred in Buffalo after a woman inadvertently touched a downed electrical wire obscured by debris.[95] Several nearby resorts received extensive damage. At Woodlawn Beach, several dozens of small boats and a pier were destroyed. Nearly all vessels owned by the Buffalo Canoe Club suffered severe damage or destruction at Crystal Beach. A toboggan slide and a restaurant were also destroyed. Losses in Crystal Beach reached about $5,000. Heavy crop losses occurred over western New York, with fallen apples and peaches completely covering the ground at thousands of acres of orchards. Losses reportedly ranged in the hundreds of thousands of dollars.[99]
The rapidly moving storm was still exhibiting winds of 65mph (105km/h) while passing well north of New York City on September12.[100]The New York Times reported that pedestrian-walking became difficult and attributed one death to the storm. A sign pole, snapped by the wind, landed on a 23-year-old man, crushing his skull and killing him instantly, while two others were knocked unconscious. Awnings and signs on many buildings broke and the canvas roofing at the Fire Department headquarters was blown off.[101] Closer to the waterfront, along the Battery seawall, waves and tides were reported to be some of the highest in recent memory of the fishermen and sailors. Spray and debris were thrown over the wall, making walking along the waterfront dangerous. Small craft in New York Harbor were thrown off course and tides and currents in the Hudson River made navigation difficult.[102] In Brooklyn, The New York Times reported that trees were uprooted, signs and similar structures were blown down, and yachts were torn from moorings with some suffering severe damage.[103] Because of the direction of the wind, Coney Island escaped the fury of the storm, though a bathing pavilion at Bath Beach suffered damage from wind and waves.[101]
New England
In Connecticut, winds gusted up to about 40mph (64km/h). The apple crops, already endangered by drought conditions, suffered severe damage, with The Boston Globe noting that there was, "hardly an apple left on a tree in the entire state".[104] In the town of Orange, twelve large tents at a fair were ripped. At another fair in New Milford, fifteen tents collapsed, forcing closure of the fair.[105] Along the coast, the storm produced abnormally high tides, with tides reaching their highest heights in six years at Westbrook. Water reached the bulkheads and remained there for several hours.[106] In Rhode Island, the storm left damage in the vicinity of Providence. Telegraph and telephone services were interrupted, but not to such a large extent. Some small crafts in Narragansett Bay received damage, while apple orchards experienced slight losses.[107]
Lightning produced by the storm ignited several brush fires in Massachusetts, particularly in the southeastern portions of the state, with winds spreading the flames. In Plymouth and other nearby towns, some residents evacuated from the fires by boat. Most cottages around the Big Long, Gallows,[108]Halfway,[109] and Little Long ponds were reduced to burning coals.[108] In Everett, orchards in the Woodlawn section suffered complete losses of fruit. Two wooden frame building were demolished, while winds also toppled fences throughout the city.[110] Winds damaged many telephone and electric wires in Cambridge. A lineman sent to fix the electrical wires nearly died when a pole snapped during a fierce wind gust. Orchards in the city suffered near complete loss and many shade trees were also damaged. At least a few chimneys toppled and several others were left leaning. A bathhouse at Harvard University lost a portion of its tin roof and its copper cornices.[111] At Cape Cod, a wind speed of 45mph (72km/h) was observed at Highland Light in North Truro. Waves breached the sand dunes at multiple locations along the cape, with water sweeping across a county road at Beach Point in North Truro. A number of fishing boats sank and several fish houses received severe damage.[112] One man drowned in a lake near Andover while canoeing during the storm.[113]
Strong winds in Vermont generated rough seas in Lake Champlain. Early reports indicated that a schooner sunk near Adams Ferry with no survivors,[114] but the vessel was later found safely anchored at Westport, New York.[115] According to a man near the lake, all water from the New York portion of the lake was blown to the Vermont side, crashing ashore in waves as high as 15 to 20ft (4.6 to 6.1m).[114] In the state capital of Montpelier, several large trees at the state house were uprooted. Within Montpelier and vicinity, farmers suffered some losses to apples and corn. Telephone and telegraph services were almost completely cut off. In Vergennes, a number of telephone wires snapped, while many apples, pears, and plums were blown off the trees. Additional damage to fruit and shade trees occurred in Middlebury and Winooski.[115] The city of Burlington experienced its worst storm in many years. Winds downed all telephone and telegraph wires, whereas many trees had severe damage. Some homes were deroofed.[116]
In New Hampshire, the storm left wind damage in the city of Nashua. Winds tore roofs off a number of buildings, with several roofs landing on the streets or telephone wires. Chimneys in each section of the city collapsed; many people narrowly escaped injury or death. In Nashua and the nearby cities of Brookline and Hollis, thousands of dollars in losses occurred to apple crops, described as "practically ruined".[117] The city of Manchester was affected by "one of the most furious windstorms which visited this city in years". Telephone and telegraph communications were nearly completely out for several hours, while windows shattered and trees snapped. Street railway traffic experienced delays.[118] In Maine, the storm downed trees and chimney and caused property damage in the vicinity of Biddeford.[119]
From September12–September14, the extratropical remnants of the Galveston hurricane affected six Canadian provinces, resulting in severe damage and extensive loss of life. In Ontario, storm surge in Lake Ontario ranged from 8 to 10ft (2.4 to 3.0m), wreaking havoc on vessels, beaching several boats, destroying a number of boats, and setting some others adrift. Many other vessels canceled or postponed their departures. Winds reached as high as 77mph (124km/h) in Toronto, breaking windows throughout the city. A fire broke out at a flour mill in Paris, and the flames were fanned by the storm, resulting in $350,000 in damage to the mill and 50other stores and offices. High winds downed electrical, telegraph, and telephone lines in many areas. Total crop damage in Ontario alone amounted to $1million. Impact to crops was particularly severe at St. Catharines, where many apple, peach, pear, and plum orchards were extensively damaged, with a loss of thousands of dollars. One person died in Niagara Falls, when a man attempted to remove debris from a pump station, but he was swept away into the river instead. Maximum rainfall in Canada reached 3.9in (100mm) in Percé, Quebec.[121]
In Nova Scotia, damage was reported in the Halifax area. A plethora of fences and trees fell over, while windows shattered and a house under construction collapsed. Two schooners were driven ashore at Sydney and a brigantine was also beached at Cape Breton Island. Another schooner, known as Greta, capsized offshore Cape Breton Island near Low Point, with the fate of the crew being unknown. On Prince Edward Island, a few barns, a windmill, and a lobster factory were destroyed. Falling trees downed about 40electrical wires. A house suffered damage after its own chimney fell and collapsed through the roof. Strong winds also tossed a boxcar from its track. A bridge and wharf at St. Peters Bay were damaged. Fruit crops were almost entirely ruined throughout Prince Edward Island. The majority of loss of life in Canada occurred due to numerous shipwrecks off the coasts of Saint Pierre and Miquelon, Newfoundland, and Prince Edward Island. The overall death toll in Canadian waters is estimated to be between 52 and 232, making this at least the eighth deadliest hurricane to affect Canada. The large discrepancy between the fatality figures is due to the fact that many people were reported missing. Thus, the exact number of deaths is unknown.[121]
Aftermath
Costliest U.S. Atlantic hurricanes, 1900–2017 Direct economic losses, normalized to societal conditions in 2018[122]
The city of Galveston was effectively obliterated.[123] With the city in ruins and railroads to the mainland destroyed, the survivors had little to live on until relief arrived. On September9, Galveston city officials established the Central Relief Committee for Galveston Storm Sufferers (CRC), chaired by Mayor Walter C. Jones. The CRC was composed of subcommittees for specific aspects of relief efforts, including burial of the deceased, correspondence, distribution of food and water, finances, hospitalization and rehabilitation for the injured, and public safety.[72]
The dead bodies were so numerous that burying all of them was impossible. Initially, bodies were collected by "dead gangs" and then given to 50African American men – who were forcibly recruited at gunpoint – to load them onto a barge. About 700bodies were taken out to sea to be dumped. However, after gulf currents washed many of the bodies back onto the beach, a new solution was needed. Funeral pyres were set up on the beaches, or wherever dead bodies were found, and burned day and night for several weeks after the storm. The authorities passed out free whiskey to sustain the distraught men conscripted for the gruesome work of collecting and burning the dead.[124]
With thousands dead and roughly 2,000survivors leaving the city and never returning according to a Morrison and Fourmy Company survey, Galveston initially experienced a significant population decline.[83] Between 1907 and 1914, Congregation B'nai Israel rabbi Henry Cohen and philanthropist Jacob Schiff spearheaded the Galveston Movement. Cohen, Schiff, and others created the movement to draw Jewish immigrants away from the crowded area along the East Coast and toward cities farther west, such as Galveston. Although approximately 10,000Jewish immigrants arrived in Galveston during this period, few settled in the city or the island, but about one-fourth of them remained in Texas.[125] The 1910 Census reported a population of 36,891people in Galveston. Although a decline from the 1900Census, the population loss of thousands of people was nearly reversed.[126]
In the months prior to the hurricane, valet Charles F. Jones and lawyer Albert T. Patrick began conspiring to murder wealthy businessman William Marsh Rice in order to obtain his wealth. Patrick fabricated Rice's legal will with the assistance of Jones. Rice's properties in Galveston suffered extensive damage during the storm. After being informed of the damage, Rice decided to spend $250,000, the entire balance of his checking account, on repairing his properties. With the duo realizing that they would fail to obtain Rice's wealth, Patrick convinced Jones to kill Rice with chloroform as he slept. Immediately after murdering Rice, Jones forged a large check to Patrick in Rice's name. However, Jones misspelled Patrick's name on the check, arousing suspicion and eventually resulting in their arrests and convictions. Rice's estate was used to open an institute for higher learning in Houston in 1912, which was named Rice University in his honor.[127]
Rebuilding
A plaque placed on buildings in Galveston to indicate which structures survived the 1900 hurricane
Survivors set up temporary shelters in surplus United States Army tents along the shore. They were so numerous that observers began referring to Galveston as the "White City on the Beach".[128] In the first two weeks following the storm, approximately 17,000 people resided in these tents, vacant storerooms, or public buildings.[129] Others constructed so-called "storm lumber" homes, using salvageable material from the debris to build shelter.[128] The building committee, with a budget of $450,000, opened applications for money to rebuild and repair homes. Accepted applicants were given enough money to build a cottage with three 12 by 12ft (3.7 by 3.7m) rooms. By March 1901, 1,073 cottages were built and 1,109 homes had been repaired.[129]
Winifred Bonfils, a young journalist working for William Randolph Hearst, was the first reporter on the line at the hurricane's ground zero in Galveston. She delivered an exclusive set of reports and Hearst sent relief supplies by train.[130] By September12, Galveston received its first post-storm mail. The next day, basic water service was restored, and Western Union began providing minimal telegraph service.[131] Within three weeks of the storm, cotton was again being shipped out of the port.[132]
A number of cities, businesses, organizations, and individuals made monetary donations toward rebuilding Galveston. By September15, less than one week after the storm struck Galveston, contributions totaled about $1.5million. More than $134,000 in donations poured in from New York City alone. Five other major cities –St. Louis, Chicago, Boston, Pittsburgh, and Philadelphia– had also donated at least $15,000 by September15.[133] By state, the largest donations included $228,000 from New York, $67,000 from Texas, $56,000 from Illinois, $53,000 from Massachusetts, and $52,000 from Missouri. Contributions also came from abroad, such as from Canada, Mexico, France, Germany, England, and South Africa,[70] including $10,000 each from Liverpool and Paris. Andrew Carnegie made the largest personal contribution, $10,000, while an additional $10,000 was donated by his steel company.[133]
It was one of those monstrosities of nature which defied exaggeration and fiendishly laughed at all tame attempts of words to picture the scene it had prepared. The churches, the great business houses, the elegant residences of the cultured and opulent, the modest little homes of laborers of a city of nearly forty thousand people; the center of foreign shipping and railroad traffic lay in splinters and debris piled twenty feet above the surface, and the crushed bodies, dead and dying, of nearly ten thousand of its citizens lay under them.
Clara Barton, the founder and president of the American Red Cross and famous for her responses to crises in the latter half of the 19th century, responded to the disaster and visited Galveston with a team of eight Red Cross workers. This would be the last disaster that Barton responded to, as she was 78 years old at the time and would retire in 1904. After Barton and the team observed the catastrophe, the Red Cross set up a temporary headquarters at a four-story warehouse in the commercial district. Her presence in Galveston and appeals for contributions resulted in a substantial amount of donations. Overall, 258 barrels, 1,552 pillow cases, and 13 casks of bedding, clothing, crockery, disinfectants, groceries, hardware, medical supplies, and shoes were received at the warehouse, while $17,341 in cash was donated to the Red Cross. Contributions, both monetary gifts and supplies, were estimated to have reached about $120,000.[72]
Before the hurricane of 1900, Galveston was considered to be a beautiful and prestigious city and was known as the "Ellis Island of the West" and the "Wall Street of the Southwest".[19][134] However, after the storm, development shifted north to Houston, which reaped the benefits of the oil boom, particularly after the discovery of oil at Spindletop on January10, 1901.[135] The dredging of the Houston Ship Channel began by 1909,[136] which opened in 1914, ending Galveston's hopes of regaining its former status as a major commercial center.[137]
The Galveston city government was reorganized into a commission government in 1901, a newly devised structure wherein the government is made of a small group of commissioners, each responsible for one aspect of governance. This was prompted by fears that the existing city council would be unable to handle the problem of rebuilding the city. The apparent success of the new form of government inspired about 500 cities across the United States to adopt a commission government by 1920. However, the commission government fell out of favor after World War I, with Galveston itself switching to council–manager government in 1960.[138]
To prevent future storms from causing destruction like that of the 1900 hurricane, many improvements to the island were made. The city of Galveston hired a team of three engineers to design structures for protection from future storms –Alfred Noble, Henry Martyn Robert, and H. C. Ripley.[139] The three engineers recommended and designed a seawall. In November1902, residents of Galveston overwhelmingly approved a bond referendum to fund building a seawall, passing the measure by a vote of 3,085–21.[124] The first 3mi (4.8km) of the Galveston Seawall, 17ft (5.2m) high, were built beginning in 1902 under the direction of Robert.[140][141] In July 1904, the first segment was completed, though construction of the seawall continued for several decades, with the final segment finished in 1963.[140] Upon completion, the seawall in its entirety stretched for more than 10mi (16km).[142]
Another dramatic effort to protect Galveston was its raising, also recommended by Noble, Robert, and Ripley, and similar to the earlier raising of Chicago and Sacramento, California. Approximately 15,000,000cuyd (11,000,000m3) of sand was dredged from the Galveston shipping channel to raise the city, some sections by as much as 17ft (5.2m).[139] Over 2,100buildings were raised in the process of pumping sand underneath,[32] including the 3,000-st (2,700-t) St. Patrick's Church.[70] According to historian David G. McComb, the grade of about 500blocks had been raised by 1911.[139] The seawall was listed among the National Register of Historic Places on August18, 1977,[142] while the seawall and raising of the island were jointly named a National Historical Civil Engineering Landmark by the American Society of Civil Engineers on October 11, 2001.[143]
In 1915, a storm similar in strength and track to the 1900 hurricane struck Galveston. The 1915 storm brought storm surge up to 12ft (3.7m), testing the integrity of the new seawall. Although 53people on Galveston Island lost their lives in the 1915 storm, this was a great reduction from the thousands who died in 1900.[144] Other powerful tropical cyclones would test the effectiveness of the seawall, including Hurricane Carla in 1961, Hurricane Alicia in 1983, and Hurricane Ike in 2008. Carla primarily caused severe coastal flood-related damage to structures unprotected by the seawall.[26] Following Hurricane Alicia, the Corps of Engineers estimated that the seawall prevented about $100million in damage.[126] Despite the seawall, Ike left extensive destruction in Galveston due to storm surge, with preliminary estimates indicating that up to $2billion in damage occurred to beaches, dwellings, hospitals, infrastructure, and ports.[145] Damage in Galveston and surrounding areas prompted proposals for improvements to the seawall, including the addition of floodgates and more seawalls.[146]
Open Era and beyond
In historiography, the hurricane and the rebuilding afterward divide what is known as the Golden Era (1875–1900) from the Open Era (1920–1957) of Galveston. The most important long-term impact of the hurricane was to confirm fears that Galveston was a dangerous place to make major investments in shipping and manufacturing operations; the economy of the Golden Era was no longer possible as investors fled.[147] However, the city experienced a significant economic rebound beginning in the 1920s, when Prohibition and lax law enforcement opened up new opportunities for criminal enterprises related to gambling and bootlegging in the city. Galveston rapidly became a prime resort destination enabled by the openvice businesses on the island. This new entertainment-based economy brought decades-long prosperity to the island.[148]
To commemorate the hurricane's 100th anniversary in 2000, the 1900 Storm Committee was established and began meeting in January 1998. The committee and then-Mayor of Galveston, Roger Quiroga, planned several public events in remembrance of the storm, including theatrical plays, an educational fundraising luncheon, a candlelight memorial service, a 5K run, the rededication of a commemorative Clara Barton plaque, and the dedication of the Place of Remembrance Monument.[149] At the dedication of the Place of Remembrance Monument, the Sisters of Charity of the Incarnate Word sang "Queen of the Waves" and placed 10roses and 90other flowers around the monument to commemorate the 10nuns and 90children who perished after the hurricane destroyed the St. Mary's Orphans Asylum.[150] Speakers at the candlelight memorial service included U. S. Senator Kay Bailey Hutchison, who was born in Galveston; Administrator of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric AdministrationD. James Baker; and CBS Evening News anchor Dan Rather, who gained fame for his coverage during Hurricane Carla in 1961.[151]The Daily News published a special 100th anniversary commemorative edition newspaper on September3, 2000.[149]
The last reported survivor of the Galveston hurricane of 1900, Maude Conic of Wharton, Texas,[152] died November14, 2004, at the claimed age of 116, although the 1900 census and other records indicate she was about 10years younger than that.[153]
The Galveston Historical Foundation maintains the Texas Seaport Museum at Pier 21 in the port of Galveston. Included in the museum is a documentary titled The Great Storm, that gives a recounting of the 1900 hurricane.[154][155]
↑ In local time, Central Standard Time (CST), the hurricane made landfall in Texas around 8:00p.m. on September8. However, government meteorological agencies such as NOAA use Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), which is six hours ahead of CST.[5][6]
↑ All damage figures pertaining to the United States are in 1900 USD, unless otherwise noted
↑ All damage figures pertaining to Canada are in 1900 CAD, unless otherwise noted
↑ The Canadian dollar and United States dollar were roughly identical in value between January 1879 and August 1914.[7]
↑ However, that view was not universally held by all Texas residents, particularly those advocating other Texas seaports. "Galveston Island, with all its boasted accumulation of people, habitations, wealth, trade and commerce, is but a waif of the ocean, a locality but of yesterday... liable, at any moment, and certain, at no distant day, of being engulfed and submerged by the self-same power that gave it form. Neither is it possible for all the skillful devices of mortal man to protect this doomed place against the impending danger; the terrible power of a hurricane cannot be... resisted. I should as soon think of founding a city on an iceberg." – D. E. E. Braman (1857).[22]
Hurricane Alicia was a small but powerful tropical cyclone that caused significant destruction in the Greater Houston area of Southeast Texas in August 1983. Although Alicia was a relatively small hurricane, its track over the rapidly growing metropolitan area contributed to its $3 billion damage toll, making it the costliest Atlantic hurricane at the time. Alicia spawned from a disturbance that originated from the tail-end of a cold front over the northern Gulf of Mexico in mid-August 1983. The cyclone was named on August 14 when it became a tropical storm, and the combination of weak steering currents and a conducive environment allowed Alicia to quickly intensify as it drifted slowly westward. On August 17, Alicia became a hurricane and continued to strengthen, topping out as a Category 3 major hurricane as it made landfall on the southwestern end of Galveston Island. Alicia's eye passed just west of Downtown Houston as the system accelerated northwestwards across East Texas; Alicia eventually weakened into a remnant area of low pressure over Oklahoma on August 20 before they were last noted on August 21 over eastern Nebraska.
The 1943 Atlantic hurricane season marked the first deliberate reconnaissance aircraft flights into tropical cyclones. The season officially lasted from June 16 to October 31, which was, at the time, considered the most likely period for tropical cyclone formation in the Atlantic Ocean. A total of ten storms from 1943 are listed in the Atlantic hurricane database, and an eleventh system that affected Florida and Georgia has been identified as a probable tropical depression. The first system of the year, dubbed the "Surprise hurricane", caused severe damage throughout Texas and Louisiana in June, partially because information about its approach was censored in the fray of World War II; the storm caused 19 deaths and $17 million in damage. A major hurricane in mid-August produced hurricane-force winds in Bermuda, and several other tropical cyclones throughout the year resulted in strong winds there. In September, a hurricane impacted the western Gulf Coast of the United States, then a tropical storm struck the Mid-Atlantic. The two storms resulted in $419,000 and $20,000 in damage, respectively; one death was attributed to the latter system. In mid-October, a strong hurricane resulted in flooding and damage to crops throughout the Caribbean; after becoming post-tropical, it contributed to moderate impacts across Nova Scotia.
The 1938 Atlantic hurricane season produced fifteen tropical cyclones, of which nine strengthened into tropical storms. Four storms intensified into hurricanes. Two of those four became major hurricanes, the equivalent of a Category 3 or greater storm on the modern day Saffir–Simpson scale. The hurricane season officially began on June 16 and ended on November 15. In 2012, as part of the Atlantic hurricane reanalysis project, meteorologists identified a previously undocumented January hurricane and September tropical storm while fine-tuning the meteorological histories of several others. However, given scant observations from ships and weather stations, significant uncertainty of tropical cyclone tracks, intensity, and duration remains, particularly for those storms that stayed at sea.
The 1934 Atlantic hurricane season produced thirteen tropical storms, of which seven further organized into hurricanes. Of those seven hurricanes, only one intensified into a major hurricane, which is a Category 3 or stronger system on the modern-day Saffir–Simpson scale. The first system developed on June 4 while the last storm dissipated on November 30. In 2012, as part of the Atlantic hurricane reanalysis project, meteorologists identified two previously unknown September tropical storms and fine-tuned the meteorological histories of many others. However, given scant observations from ships and weather stations, significant uncertainty of tropical cyclone tracks, intensity, and duration remains, particularly for those storms that stayed at sea.
The 1915 Atlantic hurricane season was an active Atlantic hurricane season in which six tropical storms developed. The first storm, which remained a tropical depression, appeared on April 29 near the Bahamas, while the final system, also a tropical depression, was absorbed by an extratropical cyclone well south of Newfoundland on October 22. Of the six tropical storms, five intensified into a hurricane, of which three further strengthened into a major hurricane. Four of the hurricanes made landfall in the United States. The early 20th century lacked modern forecasting and documentation, and thus, the hurricane database from these years may be incomplete.
The 1909 Atlantic hurricane season was an average Atlantic hurricane season. The season produced thirteen tropical cyclones, twelve of which became tropical storms; six became hurricanes, and four of those strengthened into major hurricanes. The season's first storm developed on June 15 while the last storm transitioned into an extratropical cyclone on November 14. The most notable storm during the season formed in late August, while east of the Lesser Antilles. The hurricane devastated the Lesser Antilles, the Greater Antilles, and Mexico, leaving around 4,000 fatalities and more than $50 million (1909 USD) in damage.
The 1919 Florida Keys hurricane was a massive and damaging tropical cyclone that swept across areas of the northern Caribbean Sea and the United States Gulf Coast in September 1919. Remaining an intense Atlantic hurricane throughout much of its existence, the storm's slow movement and sheer size prolonged and enlarged the scope of the hurricane's effects, making it one of the deadliest hurricanes in United States history. Impacts were largely concentrated around the Florida Keys and South Texas areas, though lesser but nonetheless significant effects were felt in Cuba and other areas of the United States Gulf Coast. The hurricane's peak strength in Dry Tortugas in the lower Florida Keys made it one of the most powerful Atlantic hurricanes to make landfall in the United States.
The 1900 Atlantic hurricane season featured the Galveston hurricane, the deadliest natural disaster in the history of the United States. A total of 10 tropical cyclones formed, seven of which intensified into a tropical storm. Three of those made landfall in the United States. The first system was initially observed over the central Atlantic Ocean on January 17, while the final storm transitioned into an extratropical cyclone on October 28. These dates fall within the period with the most tropical cyclone activity in the Atlantic. Every storm of the season except the seventh system existed simultaneously with another tropical cyclone.
Hurricane Charlie was the deadliest Atlantic hurricane of the 1951 Atlantic hurricane season, the most powerful tropical cyclone to strike the island of Jamaica until Hurricane Gilbert in 1988, and at the time the worst natural disaster to affect that island. The third named storm, second hurricane, and second major hurricane of the season, it developed from a tropical wave east of the Lesser Antilles. It moved briskly west-northwest, passing between the islands of Dominica and Guadeloupe. It strengthened to a hurricane in the eastern Caribbean Sea, and it struck Jamaica as a high-end Category 3 hurricane. It strengthened to a peak intensity of 130 mph (215 km/h) prior to landfall on Quintana Roo, Yucatán Peninsula. It weakened over land, but re-strengthened over the Gulf of Mexico before making a final landfall near Tampico with winds of 115 mph (185 km/h).
Hurricane Audrey was one of the deadliest hurricanes in U.S. history, killing at least 416 people as it devastated the southwestern Louisiana coast in 1957. Along with Hurricane Alex in 2010, it was also the strongest June hurricane ever recorded in the Atlantic basin as measured by pressure. The rapidly developing storm struck southwestern Louisiana as an intense Category 3 hurricane, destroying coastal communities with a powerful storm surge that penetrated as far as 20 mi (32 km) inland. The first named storm and hurricane of the 1957 hurricane season, Audrey formed on June 24 from a tropical wave that moved into the Bay of Campeche. Situated within ideal conditions for tropical development, Audrey quickly strengthened, reaching hurricane status a day afterwards. Moving north, it continued to strengthen and accelerate as it approached the United States Gulf Coast. On June 27, the hurricane reached peak sustained winds of 125 mph (205 km/h), making it a major hurricane. At the time, Audrey had a minimum barometric pressure of 946 mbar. The hurricane made landfall with the same intensity between the mouth of the Sabine River and Cameron, Louisiana, later that day, causing unprecedented destruction across the region. Once inland, Audrey weakened and turned extratropical over West Virginia on June 29. Audrey was the first major hurricane to form in the Gulf of Mexico since 1945.
The 1915 Galveston hurricane was a tropical cyclone that caused extensive damage in the Galveston area in August 1915. Widespread damage was also documented throughout its path across the Caribbean Sea and the interior of the United States. Due to similarities in strength and trajectory, the storm drew comparisons with the deadly 1900 Galveston hurricane. While the newly completed Galveston Seawall mitigated a similar-scale disaster for Galveston, numerous fatalities occurred along unprotected stretches of the Texas coast due to the storm's 16.2 ft (4.9 m) storm surge. Overall, the major hurricane inflicted at least $30 million in damage and killed 403–405 people. A demographic normalization of landfalling storms suggested that an equivalent storm in 2005 would cause $68.0 billion in damage in the United States.
The 1916 Texas hurricane was an intense and quick-moving tropical cyclone that caused widespread damage in Jamaica and South Texas in August 1916. A Category 4 hurricane upon landfall in Texas, it was the strongest tropical cyclone to strike the United States in three decades. Throughout its eight-day trek across the Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico, the hurricane caused 37 fatalities and inflicted $11.8 million in damage.
Hurricane Ike was a powerful tropical cyclone that swept through portions of the Greater Antilles and Northern America in September 2008, wreaking havoc on infrastructure and agriculture, particularly in Cuba and Texas. Ike took a similar track to the 1900 Galveston hurricane. The ninth tropical storm, fifth hurricane, and third major hurricane of the 2008 Atlantic hurricane season, Ike developed from a tropical wave west of Cape Verde on September 1 and strengthened to a peak intensity as a Category 4 hurricane over the open waters of the central Atlantic on September 4 as it tracked westward. Several fluctuations in strength occurred before Ike made landfall on eastern Cuba on September 8. The hurricane weakened prior to continuing into the Gulf of Mexico, but increased its intensity by the time of its final landfall in Galveston, Texas, on September 13 before becoming an extratropical storm on September 14. The remnants of Ike continued to track across the United States and into Canada, causing considerable damage inland, before dissipating on the next day.
The 1949 Texas hurricane was a tropical cyclone that crossed over from the eastern Pacific to the Atlantic, contributing to extensive flooding in Guatemala and impacting East Texas. Forming in the Pacific Ocean on September 27, the storm meandered across Central America and southern Mexico as a tropical depression. Rainfall from the developing storm helped exacerbate a flooding event over southern Guatemala that may have killed as many as 40,000 people. The storm then crossed into the Gulf of Mexico on October 1 and began to intensify. It ultimately peaked as a high-end Category 2-equivalent hurricane on the modern-day Saffir–Simpson hurricane scale and made landfall near Freeport, Texas, on the morning of October 4. It rapidly weakened after moving inland and dissipated several days later. Damage from the storm was moderate, although the hurricane temporarily cut off the city of Galveston from the mainland. Rice crops suffered extensive damage in Texas and Louisiana, with losses estimated at up to $10 million. Three fatalities are attributed to the hurricane.
The 1909 Velasco hurricane was an intense tropical cyclone that devastated areas of the Texas coast in July 1909. The fourth tropical storm, second hurricane, and first major hurricane of the season, it formed from an area of disturbed weather east of the Leeward Islands on July 13, 1909. Remaining weak for much of its early existence, the system began to intensify after nearing Jamaica. Curving towards the northwest, it reached hurricane strength on July 18 near the western tip of Cuba. Intensification stalled as it moved westwards across the Gulf of Mexico, but resumed as the hurricane approached the Texas coast. The storm intensified to a major hurricane on July 21 and subsequently reached its peak intensity with winds of 115 mph (185 km/h) prior to making landfall near Velasco, Texas. Once over land, the system began to quickly weaken, and dissipated near the Rio Grande on July 22.
The 1875 Indianola hurricane brought a devastating and deadly storm surge to the coast of Texas. The third known system of the 1875 Atlantic hurricane season, the storm was first considered a tropical cyclone while located east of the Lesser Antilles on September 8. After passing through the Windward Islands and entering the Caribbean Sea, the cyclone gradually began to move more northwestward and brushed the Tiburon Peninsula of Haiti late on September 12. On the following day, the storm made a few landfalls on the southern coast of Cuba before moving inland over Sancti Spíritus Province. The system emerged into the Gulf of Mexico near Havana and briefly weakened to a tropical storm. Thereafter, the storm slowly re-intensified and gradually turned westward. On September 16, the hurricane peaked as a Category 3 hurricane with winds of 115 mph (185 km/h). Later that day, the hurricane made landfall near Indianola, Texas. The storm quickly weakened and turned northeastward, before dissipating over Mississippi on September 18.
Racer's hurricane was a destructive tropical cyclone that had severe effects in northeastern Mexico, the Republic of Texas, and the Gulf Coast of the United States in early October 1837. It was named after the Royal Navy ship HMS Racer, which encountered the cyclone in the northwestern Caribbean. Termed "one of the most famous and destructive hurricanes of the century" by meteorology historian David Ludlum, the storm first affected Jamaica with flooding rainfall and strong winds on September 26 and 27, before entering the Gulf of Mexico by October 1. As the hurricane struck northern Tamaulipas and southern Texas, it slowed to a crawl and turned sharply northeastward. The storm battered the Gulf Coast from Texas to the Florida Panhandle between October 3 and 7. After crossing the Southeastern United States, it emerged into the Atlantic shipping lanes off the Carolinas by October 9.
The effects of the 1919 Florida Keys hurricane in Texas were the deadliest of any tropical cyclone in the Texas Coastal Bend, killing at least 284 people. The hurricane produced a widespread swath of devastation across the region, exacerbated by the large extent of its winds. The city of Corpus Christi bore the brunt of the hurricane's impacts, contributing to the largest portion of the damage toll in Texas; nearly all of the confirmed fatalities were residents of the city. The storm originated from the Leeward Islands early in September 1919 and took a generally west-northwestward course, devastating the Florida Keys en route to the Gulf of Mexico. On the afternoon of September 14, the center of the hurricane made landfall upon the Texas coast at Baffin Bay. The storm's winds were estimated at 115 mph (185 km/h) at landfall, making it a Category 3 hurricane on the Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale. After slowly moving ashore, it weakened and straddled the Rio Grande before dissipating on September 16 over West Texas.
References
1 2 Trumbla, Ron (May 12, 2017). "The Great Galveston Hurricane of 1900". NOAA Celebrates 200 Years of Science, Service and Stewardship. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved February 3, 2019.
↑ "Galveston marks anniversary of disaster". Longview News-Journal. Longview, Texas. Associated Press. September 9, 2000. p.4A. Retrieved April 18, 2018– via Newspapers.com.
↑ "Coast Storm Does Damage". Natchez Democrat. September 7, 1900. p.1. Retrieved August 31, 2018– via Newspapers.com.
↑ "At Pass Christian". The Semi-Weekly Times-Democrat. New Orleans, Louisiana. September 11, 1900. p.12. Retrieved August 31, 2018– via Newspapers.com.
1 2 "Fierce Gale". The Semi-Weekly Times-Democrat. New Orleans, Louisiana. September 11, 1900. p.12. Retrieved August 31, 2018– via Newspapers.com.
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↑ Charles Coghian's Body Missing. - New York Times - 25 September 1900; pg. 2;
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↑ Wilson, W. M. (September 1900). Report for September, 1900(PDF) (Report). Climatological Data. Vol.5. Milwaukee, Wisconsin: Climate and Crop Service of the Weather Bureau. pp.3–4. Archived from the original(PDF) on June 9, 2020. Retrieved April 12, 2023– via National Centers for Environmental Information.
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↑ Rappaport, Edward N; Fernandez-Partagas, Jose (January 1995). The Deadliest Atlantic Tropical Cyclones, 1492– 1994(PDF) (NOAA Technical Memorandum NWS NHC-47). United States National Hurricane Center. p.23. Archived(PDF) from the original on May 16, 2024. Retrieved May 24, 2019.
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↑ Weinkle, Jessica; etal. (2018). "Normalized hurricane damage in the continental United States 1900–2017". Nature Sustainability. 1: 808–813. doi:10.1038/s41893-018-0165-2.
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