Seawall

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An example of a modern seawall in Ventnor on the Isle of Wight, England Seawallventnor.jpg
An example of a modern seawall in Ventnor on the Isle of Wight, England
People socializing and walking at the Malecon, Havana Malecon Havana.JPG
People socializing and walking at the Malecón, Havana
Seawall at Urangan, Queensland SeawallUranganQLD.jpg
Seawall at Urangan, Queensland

A seawall (or sea wall) is a form of coastal defense constructed where the sea, and associated coastal processes, impact directly upon the landforms of the coast. The purpose of a seawall is to protect areas of human habitation, conservation, and leisure activities from the action of tides, waves, or tsunamis. [1] As a seawall is a static feature, it will conflict with the dynamic nature of the coast and impede the exchange of sediment between land and sea. [2]

Contents

Seawall designs factor in local climate, coastal position, wave regime (determined by wave characteristics and effectors), and value (morphological characteristics) of landform. Seawalls are hard engineering shore-based structures that protect the coast from erosion. Various environmental issues may arise from the construction of a seawall, including the disruption of sediment movement and transport patterns. [3] Combined with a high construction cost, this has led to increasing use of other soft engineering coastal management options such as beach replenishment.

Seawalls are constructed from various materials, most commonly reinforced concrete, boulders, steel, or gabions. Other possible construction materials include vinyl, wood, aluminum, fiberglass composite, and biodegradable sandbags made of jute and coir. [4] In the UK, seawall also refers to an earthen bank used to create a polder, or a dike construction. The type of material used for construction is hypothesized to affect the settlement of coastal organisms, although the precise mechanism has yet to be identified. [5]

Types

A seawall works by reflecting incident wave energy back into the sea, thus reducing the energy available to cause erosion. [6] Seawalls have two specific weaknesses. Wave reflection from the wall may result in hydrodynamic scour and subsequent lowering of the sand level of the fronting beach. [7] Seawalls may also accelerate the erosion of adjacent, unprotected coastal areas by affecting the littoral drift process. [8]

Different designs of man-made tsunami barriers include building reefs and forests to above-ground and submerged seawalls. [9] Starting just weeks after the disaster, in January 2005, India began planting Casuarina and coconut saplings on its coast as a natural barrier against future disasters like the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake. [10] Studies have found that an offshore tsunami wall could reduce tsunami wave heights by up to 83%. [11]

The appropriate seawall design relies on location-specific aspects, including surrounding erosion processes. [12] There are three main types of seawalls: vertical, curved, stepped, and mounds (see table below).

Seawall types
TypeIllustrationAdvantagesDisadvantagesExample
VerticalVertical seawalls are built in particularly exposed situations. These reflect wave energy. Under storm conditions a non-breaking standing wave pattern can form, resulting in a stationary clapotic wave which moves up and down but does not travel horizontally. [13] [14] These waves promote erosion at the toe of the wall and can cause severe damage to the seawall. [15] In some cases, piles are placed in front of the wall to lessen wave energy slightly.
Vertical seawall.png
  • The first implemented, most easily designed and constructed type of seawall.
  • Vertical seawalls deflect wave energy away from the coast.
  • Loose rubble can absorb wave energy.
  • These can suffer a lot of expensive damage in a short period of time.
  • Vertical design can be undercut by high-wave energy environments over a long period of time.
PikiWiki Israel 13555 Acre seawall.jpg
CurvedCurved or stepped seawalls are designed to enable waves to break to dissipate wave energy and to repel waves back to the sea. The curve can also prevent the wave overtopping the wall and provides additional protection for the toe of the wall.
Curved concrete seawall.png
  • Concave structure introduces a dissipative element.
  • The curve can prevent waves from overtopping the wall and provides extra protection for the toe of the wall
  • Curved seawalls aim to re-direct most of the incident energy, resulting in low reflected waves and much reduced turbulence.
  • More complex engineering and design process.
  • The deflected waves can scour material at the base of the wall causing them to become undermined.
Curved Seawall, Pett Levels - geograph.org.uk - 1503255.jpg
MoundMound type seawalls, using revetments or riprap, are used in less demanding settings where lower energy erosional processes operate. The least exposed sites involve the lowest-cost bulkheads and revetments of sand bags or geotextiles. These serve to armour the shore and minimise erosion and may be either watertight or porous, which allows water to filter through after the wave energy has been dissipated. [16]
Rubblemound 2.png
  • Current designs use porous designs of rock, concrete armour.
  • Slope and loose material ensure maximum dissipation of wave energy.
  • Lower cost option.
  • Shorter life expectancy.
  • Cannot withstand or protect from high-energy conditions effectively.
11-8-07 riprap photo.jpg

Natural barriers

A report published by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) suggests that the tsunami of 26 December 2004 caused less damage in the areas where natural barriers were present, such as mangroves, coral reefs or coastal vegetation. A Japanese study of this tsunami in Sri Lanka used satellite imagery modelling to establish the parameters of coastal resistance as a function of different types of trees. [17] Natural barriers, such as coral reefs and mangrove forests, prevent the spread of tsunamis and the flow of coastal waters and mitigated the flood and surge of water. [18]

Trade-offs

A cost-benefit approach is an effective way to determine whether a seawall is appropriate and whether the benefits are worth the expense. Besides controlling erosion, consideration must be given to the effects of hardening a shoreline on natural coastal ecosystems and human property or activities. A seawall is a static feature which can conflict with the dynamic nature of the coast and impede the exchange of sediment between land and sea. The table below summarizes some positive and negative effects of seawalls which can be used when comparing their effectiveness with other coastal management options, such as beach nourishment.[ citation needed ]

Advantages and disadvantages of seawalls according to Short (1999) [19]
AdvantagesDisadvantages
  • Long term solution in comparison to soft beach nourishment.
  • Effectively minimizes loss of life in extreme events and damage to property caused by erosion.
  • Can exist longer in high energy environments in comparison to ‘soft’ engineering methods.
  • Can be used for recreation and sightseeing.
  • Forms a hard and strong coastal defense.
  • Expensive to construct.
  • May be considered aesthetically unattractive.
  • Reflected energy of waves leading to scour at base.
  • Can disrupt natural shoreline processes and destroy shoreline habitats such as wetlands and intertidal beaches.
  • Altered sediment transport processes can disrupt sand movement that can lead to increased erosion down drift from the structure. This can cause beaches to dissipate, rendering them useless for beach goers.
AC wiki.jpg
CL wiki.jpg
XB wiki.jpg
3D simulation of wave motion near a seawall. [20]

Generally, seawalls can be a successful way to control coastal erosion, but only if they are constructed well and out of materials that can withstand the force of ongoing wave energy. Some understanding is needed of the coastal processes and morphodynamics specific to the seawall location. Seawalls can be very helpful; they can offer a more long-term solution than soft engineering options, additionally providing recreation opportunities and protection from extreme events as well as everyday erosion. Extreme natural events expose weaknesses in the performance of seawalls, and analyses of these can lead to future improvements and reassessment.[ citation needed ]

Issues

Sea level rise

Sea level rise creates an issue for seawalls worldwide as it raises both the mean normal water level and the height of waves during extreme weather events, which the current seawall heights may be unable to cope with. [21] The most recent analyses of long, good-quality tide gauge records (corrected for GIA and when possible for other vertical land motions by the Global Positioning System, GPS) indicate a mean rate of sea level rise of 1.6–1.8 mm/yr over the twentieth century. [22] The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) (1997) [23] suggested that sea level rise over the next 50 – 100 years will accelerate with a projected increase in global mean sea level of +18 cm by 2050 AD. This data is reinforced by Hannah (1990) [24] who calculated similar statistics including a rise of between +16-19.3 cm throughout 1900–1988. Superstorm Sandy of 2012 is an example of the devastating effects rising sea levels can cause when mixed with a perfect storm. Superstorm Sandy sent a storm surge of 4–5 m onto New Jersey's and New York's barrier island and urban shorelines, estimated at $70 billion in damage. [25] This problem could be overcome by further modeling and determining the extension of height and reinforcement of current seawalls which needs to occur for safety to be ensured in both situations. Sea level rise also will cause a higher risk of flooding and taller tsunamis.[ citation needed ]

Hydrostatic water pressure

Seawalls, like all retaining walls, must relieve the buildup of water pressure. Water pressure buildup is caused when groundwater is not drained from behind the seawall. Groundwater against a seawall can be from the area's natural water-table, rain percolating into the ground behind the wall and waves overtopping the wall. The water table can also rise during periods of high water (high tide). Lack of adequate drainage can cause the seawall to buckle, move, bow, crack, or collapse. Sinkholes may also develop as the escaping water pressure erodes soil through or around the drainage system.[ citation needed ]

Extreme events

Extreme events also pose a problem as it is not easy for people to predict or imagine the strength of hurricane or storm-induced waves compared to normal, expected wave patterns. An extreme event can dissipate hundreds of times more energy than everyday waves, and calculating structures that will stand the force of coastal storms is difficult and, often the outcome can become unaffordable. For example, the Omaha Beach seawall in New Zealand was designed to prevent erosion from everyday waves only, and when a storm in 1976 carved out ten meters behind the existing seawall, the whole structure was destroyed. [12]

Ecosystem impacts

The addition of seawalls near marine ecosystems can lead to increased shadowing effects in the waters surrounding the seawall. Shadowing reduces the light and visibility within the water, which may disrupt the distribution as well as foraging capabilities of certain species. [26] The sediment surrounding seawalls tends to have less favorable physical properties (Higher calcification levels, less structural organization of crystalline structure, low silicon content, and less macroscale roughness) when compared to natural shorelines, which can present issues for species that reside on the seafloor. [27]

Other issues

Some further issues include a lack of long-term trend data of seawall effects due to a relatively short duration of data records; modeling limitations and comparisons of different projects and their effects being invalid or unequal due to different beach types; materials; currents; and environments. [28] Lack of maintenance is also a major issue with seawalls. In 2013, more than 5,000 feet (1,500 m) of seawall was found to be crumbling in Punta Gorda, Florida. Residents of the area pay hundreds of dollars each year for a seawall repair program. The problem is that most of the seawalls are over a half-century old and are being destroyed by only heavy downpours. If not kept in check, seawalls lose effectiveness and become expensive to repair. [29]

History and examples

A seawall, made of rocks in Paravur near Kollam city in India. Thekkumbhagam Coast in Paravur, Jun 2015.jpg
A seawall, made of rocks in Paravur near Kollam city in India.

Seawall construction has existed since ancient times. In the first century BCE, Romans built a seawall or breakwater at Caesarea Maritima creating an artificial harbor (Sebastos Harbor). The construction used Pozzolana concrete which hardens in contact with seawater. Barges were constructed and filled with the concrete. They were floated into position and sunk. The resulting harbor/breakwater/seawall is still in existence today – more than 2000 years later. [30]

The oldest known coastal defense is believed to be a 100-meter row of boulders in the Mediterranean Sea off the coast of Israel. Boulders were positioned in an attempt to protect the coastal settlement of Tel Hreiz from sea rise following the last glacial maximum. Tel Hreiz was discovered in 1960 by divers searching for shipwrecks, but the row of boulders was not found until storms cleared a sand cover in 2012. [31]

More recently, seawalls were constructed in 1623 in Canvey Island, UK, when great floods of the Thames estuary occurred, prompting the construction of protection for further events in this flood-prone area. [32] Since then, seawall design has become more complex and intricate in response to an improvement in materials, technology, and an understanding of how coastal processes operate. This section will outline some key case studies of seawalls in chronological order and describe how they have performed in response to tsunamis or ongoing natural processes and how effective they were in these situations. Analyzing the successes and shortcomings of seawalls during severe natural events allows their weaknesses to be exposed, and areas become visible for future improvement.[ citation needed ]

Canada

The Vancouver Seawall is a stone seawall constructed around the perimeter of Stanley Park in Vancouver, British Columbia. The seawall was constructed initially as waves created by ships passing through the First Narrows eroding the area between Prospect Point and Brockton Point. Construction of the seawall began in 1917, and since then this pathway has become one of the most used features of the park by both locals and tourists and now extends 22 km in total. [33] The construction of the seawall also provided employment for relief workers during the Great Depression and seamen from HMCS Discovery on Deadman's Island who were facing punishment detail in the 1950s (Steele, 1985). [34]

Overall, the Vancouver Seawall is a prime example of how seawalls can simultaneously provide shoreline protection and a source of recreation which enhances human enjoyment of the coastal environment. It also illustrates that although shoreline erosion is a natural process, human activities, interactions with the coast, and poorly planned shoreline development projects can accelerate natural erosion rates.[ citation needed ]

India

On December 26, 2004, towering waves of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake tsunami crashed against India's south-eastern coastline killing thousands. However, the former French colonial enclave of Pondicherry escaped unscathed. This was primarily due to French engineers who had constructed (and maintained) a massive stone seawall during the time when the city was a French colony. This 300-year-old seawall effectively kept Pondicherry's historic center dry even though tsunami waves drove water 24 ft (7.3 m) above the normal high-tide mark. [35]

The barrier was initially completed in 1735 and over the years, the French continued to fortify the wall, piling huge boulders along its 1.25 mi (2 km) coastline to stop erosion from the waves pounding the harbor. At its highest, the barrier running along the water's edge reaches about 27 ft (8.2 m) above sea level. The boulders, some weighing up to a ton, are weathered black and brown. The seawall is inspected every year and whenever gaps appear or the stones sink into the sand, the government adds more boulders to keep it strong. [36]

The Union Territory of Pondicherry recorded around 600 deaths from the huge tsunami waves that struck India's coast after the mammoth underwater earthquake (which measured 9.0 on the moment magnitude scale) off Indonesia, but most of those killed were fishermen who lived in villages beyond the artificial barrier which reinforces the effectiveness of seawalls.[ citation needed ]

Japan

At least 43 percent of Japan's 29,751 km (18,486 mi) [37] coastline is lined with concrete seawalls or other structures designed to protect the country against high waves, typhoons, or even tsunamis. [38] During the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami, the seawalls in most areas were overwhelmed. In Kamaishi, 4-metre (13 ft) waves surmounted the seawall – the world's largest, erected a few years ago in the city's harbor at a depth of 63 m (207 ft), a length of 2 km (1.2 mi) and a cost of $1.5 billion – and eventually submerged the city center. [39]

The risks of dependence on seawalls were most evident in the crisis at the Fukushima Dai-ichi and Fukushima Dai-ni nuclear power plants, both located along the coast close to the earthquake zone, as the tsunami washed over walls that were supposed to protect the plants. Arguably, the additional defense provided by the seawalls presented an extra margin of time for citizens to evacuate and also stopped some of the full force of energy which would have caused the wave to climb higher in the backs of coastal valleys. In contrast, the seawalls also acted in a negative way to trap water and delay its retreat.[ citation needed ]

The failure of the world's largest seawall, which cost $1.5 billion to construct, shows that building stronger seawalls to protect larger areas would have been even less cost-effective. In the case of the ongoing crisis at the nuclear power plants, higher and stronger seawalls should have been built if power plants were to be built at that site. Fundamentally, the devastation in coastal areas and a final death toll predicted to exceed 10,000 could push Japan to redesign its seawalls or consider more effective alternative methods of coastal protection for extreme events. Such hardened coastlines can also provide a false sense of security to property owners and local residents as evident in this situation. [39]

Seawalls along the Japanese coast have also been criticized for cutting settlements off from the sea, making beaches unusable, presenting an eyesore, disturbing wildlife, and being unnecessary. [40]

United States

After 2012's Hurricane Sandy, New York City Mayor Bill de Blasio invested $3,000,000,000 in a hurricane restoration fund, with part of the money dedicated to building new seawalls and protection from future hurricanes. [41] A New York Harbor Storm-Surge Barrier has been proposed, but not voted on or funded by Congress or the State of New York.[ citation needed ]

In Florida, tiger dams are used to protect homes near the coast. [42] [43]

See also

General:

Related types of walls:

Specific walls:

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Coastal erosion</span> Displacement of land along the coastline

Coastal erosion is the loss or displacement of land, or the long-term removal of sediment and rocks along the coastline due to the action of waves, currents, tides, wind-driven water, waterborne ice, or other impacts of storms. The landward retreat of the shoreline can be measured and described over a temporal scale of tides, seasons, and other short-term cyclic processes. Coastal erosion may be caused by hydraulic action, abrasion, impact and corrosion by wind and water, and other forces, natural or unnatural.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Longshore drift</span> Sediment moved by the longshore current

Longshore drift from longshore current is a geological process that consists of the transportation of sediments along a coast parallel to the shoreline, which is dependent on the angle of incoming wave direction. Oblique incoming wind squeezes water along the coast, and so generates a water current which moves parallel to the coast. Longshore drift is simply the sediment moved by the longshore current. This current and sediment movement occur within the surf zone. The process is also known as littoral drift.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Groyne</span> Structure extending into a body of water to alter water flow

A groyne is a rigid hydraulic structure built perpendicularly from an ocean shore or a river bank, interrupting water flow and limiting the movement of sediment. It is usually made out of wood, concrete, or stone. In the ocean, groynes create beaches, prevent beach erosion caused by longshore drift where this is the dominant process and facilitate beach nourishment. There is also often cross-shore movement which if longer than the groyne will limit its effectiveness. In a river, groynes slow down the process of erosion and prevent ice-jamming, which in turn aids navigation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bulkhead (barrier)</span> Anti-flooding structure

A bulkhead is a retaining wall, such as a bulkhead within a ship or a watershed retaining wall. It may also be used in mines to contain flooding.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Beach nourishment</span> Sediment replacement process

Beach nourishment describes a process by which sediment, usually sand, lost through longshore drift or erosion is replaced from other sources. A wider beach can reduce storm damage to coastal structures by dissipating energy across the surf zone, protecting upland structures and infrastructure from storm surges, tsunamis and unusually high tides. Beach nourishment is typically part of a larger integrated coastal zone management aimed at coastal defense. Nourishment is typically a repetitive process since it does not remove the physical forces that cause erosion but simply mitigates their effects.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Breakwater (structure)</span> Coastal defense structure

A breakwater is a permanent structure constructed at a coastal area to protect against tides, currents, waves, and storm surges. Breakwaters have been built since Antiquity to protect anchorages, helping isolate vessels from marine hazards such as wind-driven waves. A breakwater, also known in some contexts as a jetty or a mole, may be connected to land or freestanding, and may contain a walkway or road for vehicle access.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Revetment</span> Structures designed to absorb energy

A revetment in stream restoration, river engineering or coastal engineering is a facing of impact-resistant material applied to a bank or wall in order to absorb the energy of incoming water and protect it from erosion. River or coastal revetments are usually built to preserve the existing uses of the shoreline and to protect the slope.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Coastal geography</span> Study of the region between the ocean and the land

Coastal geography is the study of the constantly changing region between the ocean and the land, incorporating both the physical geography and the human geography of the coast. It includes understanding coastal weathering processes, particularly wave action, sediment movement and weather, and the ways in which humans interact with the coast.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Riprap</span> Rock or concrete protective armour

Riprap, also known as rip rap, rip-rap, shot rock, rock armour or rubble, is human-placed rock or other material used to protect shoreline structures against scour and water, wave, or ice erosion. Riprap is used to armor shorelines, streambeds, bridge abutments, foundational infrastructure supports and other shoreline structures against erosion. Common rock types used include granite and modular concrete blocks. Rubble from building and paving demolition is sometimes used, as well as specifically designed structures called tetrapods or similar concrete blocks. Riprap is also used underwater to cap immersed tubes sunken on the seabed to be joined into an undersea tunnel.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Coastal management</span> Preventing flooding and erosion of shorelines

Coastal management is defence against flooding and erosion, and techniques that stop erosion to claim lands. Protection against rising sea levels in the 21st century is crucial, as sea level rise accelerates due to climate change. Changes in sea level damage beaches and coastal systems are expected to rise at an increasing rate, causing coastal sediments to be disturbed by tidal energy.

Hard engineering involves the construction of hydraulic structures to protect coasts from erosion. Such structures include seawalls, gabions, breakwaters, groynes and tetrapods.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tetrapod (structure)</span> Concrete breakwater element

A tetrapod is a form of wave-dissipating concrete block used to prevent erosion caused by weather and longshore drift, primarily to enforce coastal structures such as seawalls and breakwaters. Tetrapods are made of concrete, and use a tetrahedral shape to dissipate the force of incoming waves by allowing water to flow around rather than against them, and to reduce displacement by interlocking.

Beach evolution occurs at the shoreline where sea, lake or river water is eroding the land. Beaches exist where sand accumulated from centuries-old, recurrent processes that erode rocky and sedimentary material into sand deposits. River deltas deposit silt from upriver, accreting at the river's outlet to extend lake or ocean shorelines. Catastrophic events such as tsunamis, hurricanes, and storm surges accelerate beach erosion.

Washdyke Lagoon is a brackish shallow coastal lagoon approximately 1 kilometre (0.62 mi) north of Timaru, South Canterbury, New Zealand. The lagoon has drastically reduced in size since 1881 when it was approximately 253 hectares, now it is less than 48 hectares (0.48 km2) in area. It is enclosed by a barrier beach that is 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) long and 3 metres (9.8 ft) above high tide at its largest point. The reduced lagoon size is due to the construction of the Timaru Port breakwater which is preventing coarse sediments from reaching and replenishing Washdyke Barrier. This is important as the lagoon and the surrounding 250 hectares are classified as a wildlife refuge and it demonstrates the role human structures have on coastline evolution.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Coastal engineering</span> Branch of civil engineering

Coastal engineering is a branch of civil engineering concerned with the specific demands posed by constructing at or near the coast, as well as the development of the coast itself.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Coastal flooding</span> Type of natural disaster

Coastal flooding occurs when dry and low-lying land is submerged (flooded) by seawater. The range of a coastal flooding is a result of the elevation of floodwater that penetrates the inland which is controlled by the topography of the coastal land exposed to flooding. The seawater can flood the land via several different paths: direct flooding, overtopping of a barrier, or breaching of a barrier. Coastal flooding is largely a natural event. Due to the effects of climate change and an increase in the population living in coastal areas, the damage caused by coastal flood events has intensified and more people are being affected.

Coastal sediment supply is the transport of sediment to the beach environment by both fluvial and aeolian transport. While aeolian transport plays a role in the overall sedimentary budget for the coastal environment, it is paled in comparison to the fluvial supply which makes up 95% of sediment entering the ocean. When sediment reaches the coast it is then entrained by longshore drift and littoral cells until it is accreted upon the beach or dunes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Coastal hazards</span>

Coastal hazards are physical phenomena that expose a coastal area to the risk of property damage, loss of life, and environmental degradation. Rapid-onset hazards last a few minutes to several days and encompass significant cyclones accompanied by high-speed winds, waves, and surges or tsunamis created by submarine (undersea) earthquakes and landslides. Slow-onset hazards, such as erosion and gradual inundation, develop incrementally over extended periods.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Wave-dissipating concrete block</span> Shoreline defense

A wave-dissipating concrete block is a naturally or manually interlocking concrete structure designed and employed to minimize the effects of wave action upon shores and shoreline structures, such as quays and jetties.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dynamic revetment</span> Cobble-based coastal protection

Dynamic revetments, also known as "cobble berms" or "dynamic cobble berm revetments", use gravel or cobble-sized rocks to mimic a natural cobble storm beach for the purpose of reducing wave energy and stopping or slowing coastal erosion. Unlike seawalls, dynamic revetment is designed to allow wave action to rearrange the stones into an equilibrium profile, disrupting wave action and dissipating wave energy as the cobbles move. This can reduce the wave reflection which often contributes to beach scouring.

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