Cow Tower, Norwich

Last updated

Cow Tower
Norwich, Norfolk
Cowtower.jpg
Cow Tower, showing the main tower and the stairwell turret (left)
Norfolk UK location map.svg
Red pog.svg
Cow Tower
Coordinates 52°38′03″N1°18′30″E / 52.63419°N 1.30827°E / 52.63419; 1.30827
TypeArtillery tower
Site information
Controlled by English Heritage and Norwich City Council
Site history
Built1398–1399
Materials Flint and brick
Events Kett's Rebellion

The Cow Tower is an artillery tower by the River Wensum in Norwich, Norfolk, England. Built between 1398 and 1399 by the city authorities in response to the threat from France and indigenous English rebels, the tower was intended to defend the north-eastern approach to Norwich with hand cannons and bombards. It stood apart from the main city walls, close to the river where its height would have allowed it to fire onto the higher ground opposite the city. The tower was designed to hold a garrison when required and was well furnished, probably using different floors for dining and sleeping.

Contents

It was maintained throughout the 15th century, and played a role in Kett's Rebellion of 1549, when the rebels attacked Norwich, deploying artillery and damaging the tower's parapets. Repairs to the tower's walls in the late 19th century inadvertently caused long-term damage, and in 1953 it was taken into the guardianship of the Ministry of Works, who stabilised its condition in a five-year conservation project. In the 21st century, Cow Tower is managed by English Heritage and Norwich City Council; the tower is now only a shell, however, as the floors and the roof of the building have been lost.

The circular tower is 11.2 metres (37 ft) across, 14.6 metres (48 ft) high and divided into three storeys. Its walls are 1.8 metres (5 ft 11 in) thick at the base, with a core of flint stone, faced on the inside and outside with brick; the archaeologist T. P. Smith considers it to feature some "of the finest medieval brickwork" in England. [1] The walls have gunports for the smaller pieces of artillery and the roof would have supported the heavier bombards, with wide embrasures giving the weapons adequate firing space. The Cow Tower was specially designed to support the use of gunpowder artillery, making it a very rare structure in England for this period: the only close equivalents are God's House Tower in Southampton, and the West Gate at Canterbury.

History

14th century

Cow Tower is an artillery tower that was built in the city of Norwich, Norfolk, England, between 1398 and 1399. [2] Norwich was a prosperous city in the late 14th century, with a population of around 5,000 involved in key medieval industries and forming a centre for international trade. [3] Between 1297 and 1350 the city had erected a circuit of defensive stone walls and ditches, both to impress upon outsiders the status of Norwich as a great city, but also to defend against invasion or civil disorder. [4]

Fears grew about the threat of French raids across England from the 1380s onward. [5] The citizens of Norwich were particularly concerned about the potential of a French raid on the city, drawing parallels between the position of Norwich and the experience of Southampton, another trading city that had been devastated by a French attack in 1338. [6] This threat, combined with the recent events of the Peasant Revolt of 1381 when the rebels had looted the city, encouraged the local government to improve the city's defences. [7]

The interior of the tower, showing the various gunports CowTowerInterior2.jpg
The interior of the tower, showing the various gunports

Gunpowder weapons had begun to be introduced into England in the early 14th century, initially being used as offensive siege weapons but rapidly being adapted for defensive purposes during the 1360s. [8] [lower-alpha 1] Although they were expensive, by the 1380s their potential value in defending castles and city walls was well understood and specialised facilities had begun to be built. [10] Norwich had acquired gunpowder weapons and a team of gunners by 1355, and by 1385 had fifty gunpowder pieces for use along its city walls. [11] Typically, these would have been small guns called hand cannons, rather than the heavier pieces termed bombards. [12]

The tower was built on one of the approaches to Norwich in a bend in the River Wensum, in a meadow called Cowholme, from where it acquired its current name. [13] [lower-alpha 2] When first built, however, it was initially called the Dungeon, and then the "tower in the Hospital meadows", as the surrounding land was part of the St Giles Hospital. [15] It was intended to function as a specialised artillery tower, housing gunpowder weaponry capable of suppressing attackers on the far side of the river. [16] The Wensum was quite narrow at this point, however, and the tower's defences would have been of relatively limited value if the enemy successfully crossed over. [17]

There are fragmentary historical references to an earlier tower in the area, responsible for collecting tolls and acting as a prison, but it is unclear if this was on the same site as the Cow Tower, or refers to a different tower in the area. [18] The Cow Tower was one of several fortifications along this stretch of the river, with the gatehouse of Bishop Bridge lying just to the south, followed by two boom towers that controlled access to the waterway a further 1 kilometre (0.62 mi) down-river, and with another tower positioned 300 metres (980 ft) up-river to the north. [19] Although the Cow Tower was not directly part of the city walls, a protective timber palisade linked the tower with the line of the city wall to the north-west, and ran south to meet Bishop Bridge. [20]

The city's accounts show the details of the payments for the construction of the tower between 1398 and 1399, including charges for 36,850 bricks, stone, sand, lime, a hoist and various equipment. [21] At least 170 cartloads of stone are mentioned, and the bricks may have been brought to the site along the river by boat, while some of the timber was brought from Great Yarmouth. [22] The total cost of the building from these records, including labour, came to around £36. [23] [lower-alpha 3] The number of bricks used in the tower, however, was probably twice the listed number purchased, and the city may therefore already have stockpiled some bricks on the location before the build. [24]

15th–16th centuries

Examples of English bombards and stone cannonballs from the early 15th century Cannons abandonded by Thomas Scalles at Mont Saint-Michel.jpg
Examples of English bombards and stone cannonballs from the early 15th century

Cow Tower formed part of the city defences during the 15th century, with the Crown occasionally issuing instructions that it should be repaired. [25] In 1450 St Giles Hospital formally transferred any rights they had to the tower and the immediately surrounding land to the city. [25] The population of Norwich grew significantly from 1500 onwards and the city continued to maintain the urban defences; like other towers and gatehouses belonging to the city, however, by this period the Cow Tower was probably leased out to a merchant or craftsman when not in military use. [26]

In 1549, Robert Kett led an uprising in Norfolk; marching on Norwich, his army camped on the north-east side of the river, overlooking Cow Tower. [27] Two rebel attacks were then made across the river into the Hospital meadows, in an attempt to take Bishop Bridge, which would have given them access to the city. [27] Kett had brought artillery, which he turned on the Cow Tower, damaging the latter's parapets. [28] The rebellion failed, and the tower does not seem to have required extensive repairs. [27]

17th–21st centuries

Most of Norwich's city walls, and all of the gatehouses, were demolished in the late 18th and 19th century as the city industrialised, but the Cow Tower avoided destruction. [29] The tower was now owned by the Trustees of the Great Hospital, who carried out repairs to the structure in the late 19th century, and in 1904, the British Army considered repairing the tower for use as an ammunition depot. [30] The repairs in the 19th century had used modern concrete when patching the walls, and this, combined with erosion from the river, soon caused extensive damage: wide splits formed up and down the tower along its northern side. [31]

The Ministry of Works took the tower into its guardianship in 1953 to address the problems, and promptly undertook an extensive sequence of repairs that lasted until 1958. [32] No archaeological investigation was carried out during these works, however, and a full architectural survey of the building was only carried out between 1985 and 1986, by the Historic Buildings and Monuments Commission. [33] In the 21st century, Cow Tower is managed by English Heritage and Norwich City Council; the tower is now only a shell, however, as the floors and the roof have been lost. The tower is protected under UK law as a scheduled monument. [34]

Architecture

Plan of the tower: (left to right) ground floor, first floor, second floor Cow Tower complete plans.jpg
Plan of the tower: (left to right) ground floor, first floor, second floor

Cow Tower is a three-story circular building with a protruding turret, the main building being 11.2 metres (37 ft) across and 14.6 metres (48 ft) tall, tapering towards the top. [35] Its walls, 1.8 metres (5 ft 11 in) thick at the base, are made of a core of flint stone, faced on the inside and outside with brick, and various putlog holes can still be seen in the walls. [35] The turret, which contained a spiral staircase, would originally have been higher than the parapets, forming a look-out position. [32] The walls rest on a stone plinth and several layers of mortared flint. [35]

The bricks were probably made at the St Benet's Abbey in Norfolk, with the stone coming from chalk pits near Norwich's southern Conesford Gates. [25] The brickwork, particularly on the stairwell, is particularly well executed, and archaeologist T. P. Smith considers the tower to feature some "of the finest medieval brickwork" in England. [1] It is the earliest known use of brick in an external load-capacity in Norwich. [35] The use of brick in this sort of fortification was both prestigious and practical, as brick absorbed the impact of artillery fire better than stone. [36] The river bends around about 1 metre (3 ft 3 in) from the bottom of the tower, and its base may have been underpinned with timber piles during its original construction. [37]

The Cow Tower was deliberately designed to house gunpowder artillery when it was first built, making it a very rare form of defensive structure for its time: the only equivalents in England are God's House Tower in Southampton, and the West Gate at Canterbury. [38] The archaeologists Oliver Creighton and Robert Higham go so far as to consider the building to be unique within Britain, as God's House was an extension of an existing building, and the West Gate part of the city's walled circuit. [39] The concept of an isolated artillery tower was more common in France, where they were used as temporary and permanent defensive features during the Hundred Years War between the English and the French kings. [40]

Chasing and sockets in the walls of the ground floor CowTowerInterior1.jpg
Chasing and sockets in the walls of the ground floor

The quatrefoil gunports in the lower levels could have been used for both hand cannons and crossbows, with overlapping fields of fire. [41] The roof was reinforced with large timber joints, and could have supported heavier bombards, possibly on wheeled carriages; the tower's considerable height would have allowed the bombards to reach across the river onto the higher ground overlooking the city. [42] Getting the bombards onto the roof may have required them to be hoisted up on a winch; one such hoist formed part of the accounts for the tower's construction in 1398 and 1399. [43]

The tower's gun installations were intended to be used to deal with an external threat approaching from the far side of the river. [16] The parapet of the roof was crenellated with nine wide embrasures, and the embrasures facing out across the river were constructed flush with the floor of the roof, giving the bombards plenty of room to fire. [44] The embrasures facing away from the river, however, had sloping cills rather than open positions, and the windows in the tower facing towards the city were rectangular and relatively unprotected. [45] The entrance to the tower itself was not fortified, as the tower was not expected to be defended from a direct attack by land. [43]

The tower was designed to be able to maintain a garrison when required and was well furnished. [46] The ground floor and second floor had fireplaces, with the first and second floors also having garderobes. [47] The ground floor may have formed a dining area, with the floors above being used for military purposes and sleeping accommodation. [46] The walls of the ground floor have chasing and sockets cut into them. [47] It is unclear what these were: theories include that they contained timbers to support brickwork that in turn supported the first floor; that they were held timbers that supported the joists of the first floor; or they are the remains of an ammunition store, retrofitted in the tower in the 16th century. [48]

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ Early gunpowder artillery had only a limited range and the stone cannonballs that were initially used were relatively ineffective when fired at stone walls. As a result, gunpowder artillery proved most useful for defence, particularly when directed against infantry assaults or used to target the crews of enemy siege engines. [9]
  2. ↑ The meadow of Cowholme takes its name from the older word Couholm, comprising cou, "cow", and holm, a Scandinavian word for "water meadow". [14]
  3. ↑ It is impossible to accurately compare medieval and modern sums of money.

Related Research Articles

Castle Fortified residential structure of medieval Europe

A castle is a type of fortified structure built during the Middle Ages predominantly by the nobility or royalty and by military orders. Scholars debate the scope of the word castle, but usually consider it to be the private fortified residence of a lord or noble. This is distinct from a palace, which is not fortified; from a fortress, which was not always a residence for royalty or nobility; and from a fortified settlement, which was a public defence – though there are many similarities among these types of construction. Usage of the term has varied over time and has been applied to structures as diverse as hill forts and country houses. Over the approximately 900 years that castles were built, they took on a great many forms with many different features, although some, such as curtain walls, arrowslits, and portcullises, were commonplace.

Defensive wall Fortification used to protect an area from potential aggressors

A defensive wall is a fortification usually used to protect a city, town or other settlement from potential aggressors. The walls can range from simple palisades or earthworks to extensive military fortifications with towers, bastions and gates for access to the city. From ancient to modern times, they were used to enclose settlements. Generally, these are referred to as city walls or town walls, although there were also walls, such as the Great Wall of China, Walls of Benin, Hadrian's Wall, Anastasian Wall, and the Atlantic Wall, which extended far beyond the borders of a city and were used to enclose regions or mark territorial boundaries. In mountainous terrain, defensive walls such as letzis were used in combination with castles to seal valleys from potential attack. Beyond their defensive utility, many walls also had important symbolic functions – representing the status and independence of the communities they embraced.

Castles in Great Britain and Ireland

Castles have played an important military, economic and social role in Great Britain and Ireland since their introduction following the Norman invasion of England in 1066. Although a small number of castles had been built in England in the 1050s, the Normans began to build motte and bailey and ring-work castles in large numbers to control their newly occupied territories in England and the Welsh Marches. During the 12th century the Normans began to build more castles in stone – with characteristic square keep – that played both military and political roles. Royal castles were used to control key towns and the economically important forests, while baronial castles were used by the Norman lords to control their widespread estates. David I invited Anglo-Norman lords into Scotland in the early 12th century to help him colonise and control areas of his kingdom such as Galloway; the new lords brought castle technologies with them and wooden castles began to be established over the south of the kingdom. Following the Norman invasion of Ireland in the 1170s, under Henry II, castles were established there too.

Siege engine Pre-gunpowder fortress-warfare machines

A siege engine is a device that is designed to break or circumvent heavy castle doors, thick city walls and other fortifications in siege warfare. Some are immobile, constructed in place to attack enemy fortifications from a distance, while others have wheels to enable advancing up to the enemy fortification. There are many distinct types, such as siege towers that allow foot soldiers to scale walls and attack the defenders, battering rams that damage walls or gates, and large ranged weapons that attack from a distance by launching projectiles. Some complex siege engines were combinations of these types.

Ashby de la Zouch Castle 15th-century fortification in England

Ashby de la Zouch Castle is a ruined fortification in the town of Ashby-de-la-Zouch, Leicestershire, England. The castle was built by William, Lord Hastings, a favourite of Edward IV, after 1473, accompanied by the creation of a 3,000-acre (1,200 ha) park. Constructed on the site of an older manor house, two large towers and various smaller buildings had been constructed by 1483, when Hastings was executed by Richard, Duke of Gloucester. The Hastings family used the castle as their seat for several generations, improving the gardens and hosting royal visitors.

Bastion

A bastion or bulwark is a structure projecting outward from the curtain wall of a fortification, most commonly angular in shape and positioned at the corners of the fort. The fully developed bastion consists of two faces and two flanks, with fire from the flanks being able to protect the curtain wall and the adjacent bastions. Compared with the medieval fortifications they replaced, bastion fortifications offered a greater degree of passive resistance and more scope for ranged defence in the age of gunpowder artillery. As military architecture, the bastion is one element in the style of fortification dominant from the mid 16th to mid 19th centuries.

Tilbury Fort

Tilbury Fort, also known historically as the Thermitage Bulwark and the West Tilbury Blockhouse, is an artillery fort on the north bank of the River Thames in England. The earliest version of the fort, comprising a small blockhouse with artillery covering the river, was constructed by King Henry VIII to protect London against attack from France as part of his Device programme. It was reinforced during the 1588 Spanish Armada invasion scare, after which it was reinforced with earthwork bastion, and Parliamentary forces used it to help secure the capital during the English Civil War of the 1640s. Following naval raids during the Anglo-Dutch Wars, the fort was enlarged by Sir Bernard de Gomme from 1670 onwards to form a star-shaped defensive work, with angular bastions, water-filled moats and two lines of guns facing onto the river.

Deal Castle

Deal Castle is an artillery fort constructed by Henry VIII in Deal, Kent, between 1539 and 1540. It formed part of the King's Device programme to protect against invasion from France and the Holy Roman Empire and defended the strategically important Downs anchorage off the English coast. Comprising a keep with six inner and outer bastions, the moated stone castle covered 0.85 acres (0.34 ha) and had sixty-six firing positions for artillery. It cost the Crown a total of £27,092 to build the three castles of Deal, Sandown and Walmer, which lay adjacent to one another along the coast and were connected by earthwork defences. The original invasion threat passed but, during the Second English Civil War of 1648–49, Deal was seized by pro-Royalist insurgents and was only retaken by Parliamentary forces after several months' fighting.

Device Forts Artillery fortifications built to defend the southern coast of England by Henry VIII

The Device Forts, also known as Henrician castles and blockhouses, were a series of artillery fortifications built to defend the coast of England and Wales by Henry VIII. Traditionally, the Crown had left coastal defences in the hands of local lords and communities but the threat of French and Spanish invasion led the King to issue an order, called a "device", for a major programme of work between 1539 and 1547. The fortifications ranged from large stone castles positioned to protect the Downs anchorage in Kent, to small blockhouses overlooking the entrance to Milford Haven in Pembrokeshire, and earthwork bulwarks along the Essex coast. Some forts operated independently, others were designed to be mutually reinforcing. The Device programme was hugely expensive, costing a total of £376,000 ; much of this was raised from the proceeds of the Dissolution of the Monasteries a few years before.

Camber Castle

Camber Castle, also known formerly as Winchelsea Castle, is a 16th-century Device Fort, built near Rye by King Henry VIII to protect the Sussex coast of England against French attack. The first fortification on the site was a small, round artillery tower, constructed by Henry between 1512 and 1514, overlooking the Camber anchorage and the entrance to Rye Harbour. In 1539, increasing tensions with France encouraged Henry to rethink his coastal defence plans, and Camber Castle was rebuilt and extended over the next year under the direction of the Moravian engineer, Stefan von Haschenperg. The results were considered unsatisfactory and further work was carried out from 1542 to 1543, at great expense, to rectify the problems. The result was a large, concentric artillery fort, with a central keep, surrounded by four circular bastions and a circular entrance bastion, built from stone and brick.

Hurst Castle

Hurst Castle is an artillery fort established by Henry VIII on the Hurst Spit in Hampshire, England, between 1541 and 1544. It formed part of the king's Device Forts coastal protection programme against invasion from France and the Holy Roman Empire, and defended the western entrance to the Solent waterway. The early castle had a central keep and three bastions, and in 1547 was equipped with 26 guns. It was expensive to operate due to its size, but it formed one of the most powerful forts along the coast. During the English Civil War of the 1640s, Hurst was held by Parliament and was used briefly to detain King Charles I before his execution in 1649. It continued in use during the 18th century but fell into disrepair, the spit being frequented by smugglers.

Sandgate Castle

Sandgate Castle is an artillery fort originally constructed by Henry VIII in Sandgate in Kent, between 1539 and 1540. It formed part of the King's Device programme to protect England against invasion from France and the Holy Roman Empire, and defended vulnerable point along the coast. It comprised a central stone keep, with three towers and a gatehouse. It could hold four tiers of artillery, and was fitted with a total of 142 firing points for cannon and handguns.

Kirby Muxloe Castle

Kirby Muxloe Castle, also known historically as Kirby Castle, is a ruined, fortified manor house in Kirby Muxloe, Leicestershire, England. William, Lord Hastings, began work on the castle in 1480, founding it on the site of a pre-existing manor house. William was a favourite of King Edward IV and had prospered considerably during the Wars of the Roses. Work continued quickly until 1483, when William was executed during Richard, Duke of Gloucester's, seizure of the throne. His widow briefly continued the project after his death but efforts then ceased, with the castle remaining largely incomplete. Parts of the castle were inhabited for a period, before falling into ruin during the course of the 17th century. In 1912, the Commissioners of Work took over management of the site, repairing the brickwork and carrying out an archaeological survey. In the 21st century, the castle is controlled by English Heritage and open to visitors.

Jewel Tower

The Jewel Tower is a 14th-century surviving element of the Palace of Westminster, in London, England. It was built between 1365 and 1366, under the direction of William of Sleaford and Henry de Yevele, to house the personal treasure of King Edward III. The original Tower was a three-storey, crenellated stone building which occupied a secluded part of the Palace and was protected by a moat linked to the River Thames. The ground floor featured elaborate sculpted vaulting, described by historian Jeremy Ashbee as "an architectural masterpiece". The Tower continued to be used for storing the monarch's treasure and personal possessions until 1512, when a fire in the Palace caused King Henry VIII to relocate his court to the nearby Palace of Whitehall.

Bombard (weapon)

The bombard is a type of cannon or mortar which was used throughout the Middle Ages and the early modern period. Bombards were mainly large calibre, muzzle-loading artillery pieces used during sieges to shoot round stone projectiles at the walls of enemy fortifications, enabling troops to break in. Most bombards were made of iron and used gunpowder to launch the projectiles. There are many examples of bombards, including Mons Meg, the Dardanelles Gun, and the handheld bombard.

Lydford Castle

Lydford Castle is a medieval castle in the town of Lydford, Devon, England. The first castle in Lydford, sometimes termed the Norman fort, was a small ringwork built in a corner of the Anglo-Saxon fortified burh in the years after the Norman conquest of England. It was intended to help control Devon following the widespread revolt against Norman rule in 1068. The Norman fort had been abandoned by the middle of the 12th century.

Upnor Castle

Upnor Castle is an Elizabethan artillery fort located on the west bank of the River Medway in Kent. It is in the village of Upnor, opposite and a short distance downriver from the Chatham Dockyard, at one time a key naval facility. The fort was intended to protect both the dockyard and ships of the Royal Navy anchored in the Medway. It was constructed between 1559–67 on the orders of Elizabeth I, during a period of tension with Spain and other European powers. The castle consists of a two-storeyed main building protected by a curtain wall and towers, with a triangular gun platform projecting into the river. It was garrisoned by about 80 men with a peak armament of around 20 cannon of various calibres.

Gunpowder artillery in the Middle Ages

Artillery in the Middle Ages primarily consisted of the introduction of the cannon, large tubular firearms designed to fire a heavy projectile over a long distance. Guns, bombs, rockets and cannons were first invented in China during the Han Chinese Song Dynasty and then later spread to Europe and the Middle East during the period.

Southampton town walls

Southampton's town walls are a sequence of defensive structures built around the town in southern England. Although earlier Roman and Anglo-Saxon settlements around Southampton had been fortified with walls or ditches, the later walls originate with the move of the town to the current site in the 10th century. This new town was defended by banks, ditches and the natural curve of the river and coastline. The Normans built a castle in Southampton but made no attempts to improve the wider defences of the town until the early 13th century, when Southampton's growing prosperity as a trading centre and conflict with France encouraged the construction of a number of gatehouses and stone walls to the north and east sides of the settlement.

References

  1. 1 2 Ayers et al. 1988 , p. 199
  2. ↑ Ayers et al. 1988 , p. 184
  3. ↑ Rutledge 2004 , p. 157; James Campbell, "Norwich 4: Late 14th to 19th Century Norwich" (PDF), British Historic Towns Atlas, p. 16, retrieved 30 December 2013
  4. ↑ Turner 1971 , p. 137; Maddern 2004 , pp. 193–194
  5. ↑ Saunders 1985 , p. 116; Ayers et al. 1988 , p. 192
  6. ↑ Norwich City Council, "Introduction", Norwich City Council, archived from the original on 28 March 2013, retrieved 30 December 2013
  7. ↑ Saunders 1985 , p. 116; Ayers et al. 1988 , p. 192;Dunn 2002 , pp. 130–131
  8. ↑ Saunders 1985 , p. 116
  9. King 1991, pp. 168–169
  10. ↑ Maddern 2004 , p. 193; Saunders 1985 , p. 116
  11. ↑ Maddern 2004 , p. 193
  12. ↑ Saunders 1985 , pp. 116–117
  13. ↑ Ayers et al. 1988 , p. 191; English Heritage, "History and Research: Cow Tower", English Heritage, retrieved 30 December 2013
  14. James Campbell. "Norwich 4: Late 14th to 19th Century Norwich" (PDF). British Historic Towns Atlas. p. 25. Retrieved 30 December 2013.
  15. ↑ Ayers et al. 1988 , p. 191
  16. 1 2 Ayers et al. 1988 , pp. 197–198
  17. ↑ Ayers et al. 1988 , pp. 197–198; Norwich City Council, "38 Cow Tower", Norwich City Council, archived from the original on 30 December 2013, retrieved 30 December 2013
  18. ↑ Ayers et al. 1988 , pp. 191–192; Saunders 1985 , pp. 110–111
  19. ↑ Ayers et al. 1988 , p. 192
  20. ↑ Creighton & Higham 2005 , p. 115
  21. ↑ Saunders 1985 , p. 109; Ayers et al. 1988 , pp. 193–194
  22. ↑ Saunders 1985 , p. 109; Ayers et al. 1988 , pp. 196–197; Ayers 2004 , p. 23
  23. ↑ Ayers et al. 1988 , p. 193
  24. ↑ Ayers et al. 1988 , pp. 193–194; Saunders 1985 , p. 111
  25. 1 2 3 Ayers et al. 1988 , p. 194
  26. ↑ Ayers et al. 1988 , p. 194; James Campbell, "Norwich 4: Late 14th to 19th Century Norwich" (PDF), British Historic Towns Atlas, p. 17, retrieved 30 December 2013
  27. 1 2 3 Ayers et al. 1988 , p. 195
  28. ↑ Ayers 1994 , p. 95
  29. ↑ James Campbell, "Norwich 4: Late 14th to 19th Century Norwich" (PDF), British Historic Towns Atlas, p. 22, retrieved 30 December 2013
  30. ↑ Ayers et al. 1988 , p. 196; Saunders 1985 , p. 114
  31. ↑ Saunders 1985 , pp. 114–115
  32. 1 2 Saunders 1985 , p. 115
  33. ↑ Ayers et al. 1988 , pp. 184, 206; Saunders 1985 , p. 115
  34. ↑ English Heritage, "List Entry", English Heritage, archived from the original on 2 May 2014, retrieved 30 December 2013
  35. 1 2 3 4 Saunders 1985 , p. 111
  36. ↑ Creighton & Higham 2005 , p. 114
  37. ↑ Saunders 1985 , pp. 112, 114
  38. ↑ Saunders 1985 , pp. 117–118
  39. ↑ Creighton & Higham 2005 , pp. 115–116
  40. ↑ Saunders 1985 , p. 118
  41. ↑ Saunders 1985 , pp. 115, 117–118
  42. ↑ Ayers et al. 1988 , p. 194; Saunders 1985 , pp. 117–118; English Heritage, "History and Research: Cow Tower", English Heritage, retrieved 30 December 2013
  43. 1 2 Ayers et al. 1988 , p. 197
  44. ↑ Turner 1971 , p. 135; Saunders 1985 , pp. 114, 117–118
  45. ↑ Ayers et al. 1988 , p. 197; Saunders 1985 , p. 114
  46. 1 2 English Heritage, "History and Research: Cow Tower", English Heritage, retrieved 30 December 2013; Ayers et al. 1988 , p. 198
  47. 1 2 Ayers et al. 1988 , p. 198
  48. ↑ Ayers et al. 1988 , pp. 192–202

Bibliography

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.