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Crop scouting is the process of precisely assessing pest pressure (typically insects) and crop performance to evaluate economic risk from pest infestations and disease, as well as to determine the potential effectiveness of pest and disease control interventions. [1] Scouting is usually sold as a commercial service to farmers as part of Integrated pest management. New tools are available to increase the effectiveness of crop scouting, including specialized field instruments and handheld computers with GPS, enabling geotagging of crop problems. There exists a new generation of crop scouting systems that enables growers and crop consultants to precisely and accurately locate and tag crop issues, visualize them on an aerial map and make decisions for site-specific treatments. [2]
Before starting any actual scouting, preparation is essential to provide accurate information in an efficient manner. [3] Crop scouting is an Integrated pest management strategy that looks at many different aspects of crop production, not just any single pest or problem. [3] Scouts must be actively observing environmental conditions, beneficial insects, pest insects, diseases, weeds, crop growth stage, and the general health of the crop in question to get a complete picture of any problems. [3] Since field and landscape characteristics affect pest distribution, symptom expression, crop injury, and crop recovery, it is important to develop a complete field history in order to properly assess and plan management strategies. [3]
A Field History Form should be completed before the planting season begins; farmers may not be available for a more thorough history prior to the season's start. [3] [4] This history is important because it acts as a reference when accurately diagnosing symptoms caused by pests, nutrient deficiencies and toxicities, chemical application, and unfavorable environmental conditions. [3] [4]
This form should contain the following information: field location, farmer's preferred field name or number, cropping history, including specific variety and seed manufacturer, planting date, planting rate (spacing), row width, tillage operations, crop yields, pesticide names, rates, application dates and who applied them, fertilizer and lime applications and rates, weather patterns, soil type, soil test records (N, P, K, percent organic matter, and pH), irrigation availability, major pest problems, and anything else that could make scouting more effective. [3] [4] This history is very important when assessing signs of crop injuries, because they are generally ambiguous since similar abnormalities can have unrelated causes. [3]
It is best to always be prepared when entering the field, as one never know what kind of issues one will find. Scouts often carry the following with them into the field: Scout Report Forms; a clipboard and writing utensils; pocket knife (splitting stalks and cutworm scouting); magnifying glass for accurate pest ID, containers (bags, vials, etc.) for collecting plant and insect specimens or soil and water samples; mechanical hand counter (for accurately counting number of pests, etc.); and measuring tape. [4] Additionally, scouts often keep the following close by: reference materials, which contain high quality photos and descriptive keys as well as various stages of pest and weed development; a spade and shovel; a cooler with ice (for specimen preservation), and a hand held pH meter. As scouts tend to visit more fields within one day, they also should be aware that they are potentially carrying pests from one field to the next;they should take the necessary precautions concerning their outfit(s) [3] [4]
The frequency with which fields are scouted depends on the type of crop grown, stage of crop life cycle, present and expected pest(s) and their lifecycle, and environmental conditions (weather). [1] [3] [4] Based on these variables, field visits should be planned to ensure that crop establishes itself, that growth proceeds with healthy development and does not proceed into a population bottleneck, and that pests do not pass the economic threshold level, after which they could become a major problem. [1] [3] [4] This is generally not a problem after the crop has reached a specific stage in development (specific to variety), so the number of visits can be reduced. [3] [4] Frequency of visits to problem fields should not be reduced, and these fields should be strictly monitored. [3] [4]
Since covering the entire population of a whole field would take much time, sample populations must be surveyed to ensure quick and efficient data collection and distribution. Sampling patterns are completely randomized to ensure that each subdivision in a field has an equal chance of being sampled. [3] Restrictions to these randomized sampling techniques are imposed to correct the possible error of oversampling in a specific area, and to make sure that all areas of the field are sampled. [3]
Some of the most common randomized patterns are a predetermined zigzag or M-shaped route through rectangular shaped fields. [3] [4] Routes for irregular shaped fields should be made, ensuring that every subdivision of the field is visited, these randomized routes are field specific. Scouting along the edge of a field should not be practiced unless for specific pests, this kind of sampling usually does not show the baring of effects on the whole field. [4]
A scouting report should be filled out every time a field is scouted even if no serious problems are found, as farmers are often interested in crop health and growth stage. [4] A copy of the scouting report should be left with the grower so that they can take the appropriate actions, a second copy should be given to the scout manager, and third copy should stay with the scout so that they can look back at past reports if needed. [3] [4] The scouting report includes the following: field description, pest observations, crop and field observations, comments and a field map. [3]
Genetically modified maize (corn) is a genetically modified crop. Specific maize strains have been genetically engineered to express agriculturally-desirable traits, including resistance to pests and to herbicides. Maize strains with both traits are now in use in multiple countries. GM maize has also caused controversy with respect to possible health effects, impact on other insects and impact on other plants via gene flow. One strain, called Starlink, was approved only for animal feed in the US but was found in food, leading to a series of recalls starting in 2000.
Crop rotation is the practice of growing a series of different types of crops in the same area across a sequence of growing seasons. This practice reduces the reliance of crops on one set of nutrients, pest and weed pressure, along with the probability of developing resistant pests and weeds.
Pesticide resistance describes the decreased susceptibility of a pest population to a pesticide that was previously effective at controlling the pest. Pest species evolve pesticide resistance via natural selection: the most resistant specimens survive and pass on their acquired heritable changes traits to their offspring. If a pest has resistance then that will reduce the pesticide's efficacy – efficacy and resistance are inversely related.
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to organic gardening and farming:
A soil test is a laboratory or in-situ analysis to determine the chemical, physical or biological characteristics of a soil. Possibly the most widely conducted soil tests are those performed to estimate the plant-available concentrations of nutrients in order to provide fertilizer recommendations in agriculture. In geotechnical engineering, soil tests can be used to determine the current physical state of the soil, the seepage properties, the shear strength and the deformation properties of the soil. Other soil tests may be used in geochemical or ecological investigations.
Integrated pest management (IPM), also known as integrated pest control (IPC) is a broad-based approach that integrates both chemical and non-chemical practices for economic control of pests. IPM aims to suppress pest populations below the economic injury level (EIL). The UN's Food and Agriculture Organization defines IPM as "the careful consideration of all available pest control techniques and subsequent integration of appropriate measures that discourage the development of pest populations and keep pesticides and other interventions to levels that are economically justified and reduce or minimize risks to human health and the environment. IPM emphasizes the growth of a healthy crop with the least possible disruption to agro-ecosystems and encourages natural pest control mechanisms." Entomologists and ecologists have urged the adoption of IPM pest control since the 1970s. IPM is a safer pest control framework than reliance on the use of chemical pesticides, mitigating risks such as: insecticide-induced resurgence, pesticide resistance and (especially food) crop residues.
Pest control is the regulation or management of a species defined as a pest; such as any animal, plant or fungus that impacts adversely on human activities or environment. The human response depends on the importance of the damage done and will range from tolerance, through deterrence and management, to attempts to completely eradicate the pest. Pest control measures may be performed as part of an integrated pest management strategy.
Nutrient management is the science and practice directed to link soil, crop, weather, and hydrologic factors with cultural, irrigation, and soil and water conservation practices to achieve optimal nutrient use efficiency, crop yields, crop quality, and economic returns, while reducing off-site transport of nutrients (fertilizer) that may impact the environment. It involves matching a specific field soil, climate, and crop management conditions to rate, source, timing, and place of nutrient application.
The Western corn rootworm, Diabrotica virgifera virgifera, is one of the most devastating corn rootworm species in North America, especially in the midwestern corn-growing areas such as Iowa. A related species, the Northern corn rootworm, D. barberi, co-inhabits in much of the range and is fairly similar in biology.
Growing degree days (GDD), also called growing degree units (GDUs), are a heuristic tool in phenology. GDD are a measure of heat accumulation used by horticulturists, gardeners, and farmers to predict plant and animal development rates such as the date that a flower will bloom, an insect will emerge from dormancy, or a crop will reach maturity. GDD is credited to be first defined by Reaumur in 1735.
Organic horticulture is the science and art of growing fruits, vegetables, flowers, or ornamental plants by following the essential principles of organic agriculture in soil building and conservation, pest management, and heirloom variety preservation.
Worldwide more human beings gain their livelihood from agriculture than any other endeavor; the majority are self-employed subsistence farmers living in the tropics. While growing food for local consumption is the core of tropical agriculture, cash crops are also included in the definition.
Non-pesticidal Management (NPM) describes various pest-control techniques which do not rely on pesticides. It is used in organic production of foodstuff, as well as in other situations in which the introduction of toxins is undesirable. Instead of the use of synthetic toxins, pest control is achieved by biological means.
Intensive crop farming is a modern industrialized form of crop farming. Intensive crop farming's methods include innovation in agricultural machinery, farming methods, genetic engineering technology, techniques for achieving economies of scale in production, the creation of new markets for consumption, patent protection of genetic information, and global trade. These methods are widespread in developed nations.
Pine and fir trees, grown purposely for use as Christmas trees, are vulnerable to a wide variety of pests, weeds and diseases. Many of the conifer species cultivated face infestations and death from such pests as the balsam woolly adelgid and other adelgids. Aphids are another common insect pest. Christmas trees are also vulnerable to fungal pathogens and their resultant illnesses such as root rot, and, in the U.S. state of California, sudden oak death. Douglas-fir trees in particular are vulnerable to infections from plant pathogens such as R. pseudotsugae.
Pesticide application refers to the practical way in which pesticides are delivered to their biological targets. Public concern about the use of pesticides has highlighted the need to make this process as efficient as possible, in order to minimise their release into the environment and human exposure. The practice of pest management by the rational application of pesticides is supremely multi-disciplinary, combining many aspects of biology and chemistry with: agronomy, engineering, meteorology, socio-economics and public health, together with newer disciplines such as biotechnology and information science.
Crop diversity or crop biodiversity is the variety and variability of crops, plants used in agriculture, including their genetic and phenotypic characteristics. It is a subset of a specific element of agricultural biodiversity. Over the past 50 years, there has been a major decline in two components of crop diversity; genetic diversity within each crop and the number of species commonly grown.
SmartStax is a brand of genetically modified seed made through a collaboration between Monsanto Company and Dow Chemical Company. It takes advantage of multiple modes of insect protection and herbicide tolerance. SmartStax takes advantage of Yieldgard VT Triple (Monsanto), Herculex Xtra (Dow), RoundUp Ready 2 (Monsanto), and Liberty Link (Dow). The traits included protect against above-ground insects, below-ground insects, and provide broad herbicide tolerance. It is currently available for corn, but cotton, soybean, and specialty crop variations are to be released. Previously, the most genes artificially added to a single plant was three, but Smartstax includes eight. Smartstax also incorporates Monsanto's Acceleron Seed Treatment System which protects against insects at the earliest stages of development. Smartstax is sold under the Genuity (Monsanto) and Mycogen (Dow) brands.
Maladera formosae, commonly known as the Asiatic garden beetle and formerly known as Maladera castanea, is a species of beetle in the family Scarabaeidae. It is native to Japan, China, South Korea, North Korea, and Russia but was introduced to North America in the 1920s where it is considered a pest of turfs, gardens, and crop fields. Adults are active in the summer during which they can be found feeding on leaves and flowers or gathering around light sources at night.
Cladosporium ear rot is a disease that affects maize. The disease is caused by the saprophytic fungus Cladosporium herbarum and is characterized by black or dark green fungal growths that cause black streaks on kernels.
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