Tape measure

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Plastic tape measure (cm) Tape measure colored.jpeg
Plastic tape measure (cm)
Manually reeled tape measure Retractable twenty meter tape measure 2.jpg
Manually reeled tape measure
Self-retracting metal tape measure (US customary) Measuring-tape.jpg
Self-retracting metal tape measure (US customary)
Measuring tape capable of measuring down to .mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px} 1/32 in (0.794 mm) Inch tape.jpg
Measuring tape capable of measuring down to 1⁄32 in (0.794 mm)
Diagram showing fractions of an inch on a standard sixteenth measuring tape Measuring - Fractions of an inch.svg
Diagram showing fractions of an inch on a standard sixteenth measuring tape

A tape measure or measuring tape is a flexible ruler used to measure length or distance.

Contents

It consists of a ribbon of cloth, plastic, fibre glass, or metal strip with linear measurement markings. It is a common measuring tool. Its design allows for a measure of great length to be easily carried in pocket or toolkit and permits one to measure around curves or corners. Today it is ubiquitous, even appearing in miniature form as a keychain fob, or novelty item. Surveyors use tape measures in lengths of over 100 m.

Types

Tape measures are often designed for specific uses or trades. Tapes may have different scales, be made of different materials, and be of different lengths depending on the intended use. Tape measures can wind into a relatively small containers.

Tape measures that were intended for use in tailoring or dressmaking are called "sewing tape". They were made from flexible cloth or plastic, and are now made of fiberglass, which does not tear or stretch as easily. These types of tape measures are mainly used for the measuring of the subject's waist line and are usually 150 cm in length.

Measuring tapes designed for carpentry or construction often use a stiff, curved metallic ribbon that can remain stiff and straight when extended, but retracts into a coil for convenient storage. This type of tape measure will have a floating tang or hook on the end to aid measuring. The tang is connected to the tape with loose rivets through oval holes, and can move a distance equal to its thickness, to provide both inside and outside measurements that are accurate. [1]

Self-marking tape measures allows the user have a graphite tip which allows accurate markings

Cased measuring tape

There are two basic types of tape measures with cases: spring return pocket tape measures and long tape measures. Spring return pocket tape measures will generally fit in a pocket. They are small; the case is about 5 to 10 cm across. The tape is returned to the case by a spring mechanism. Pocket tape measures have a tape 0.3 to 10 metres (1 ft 0 in to 32 ft 10 in) in length and 6 to 25 millimetres (0.24 to 0.98 in) across.

A second tape measure design is what is called the long tape. These are cased tape measures with tapes of up to 200 m in length. It is designed for engineers and builders. Long tapes, instead of being returned by a spring, are usually returned by hand crank. Because surveying was usually done in rods, surveyors used long tapes of 2 rods (1.01 m, 33 feet), and 4 rods (2.01 m, 66 feet). Surveyors also used 49+1⁄2 feet of a 50-foot tape for 3 rods and 99 feet of a 100-foot tape measure for 6 rods

History

The first record of people using a measuring device was by the Romans using marked strips of leather, but this was more like a regular ruler than a tape measure.

On 6 December 1864 patent #45,372 was issued to William H. Bangs of West Meriden, Connecticut. Bang's rule was the first attempt in the United States to make a spring return pocket tape measure. The tape could be stopped at any point and held by the mechanism. The tape could be returned to the case by sliding a button on the side of the case which then allowed the spring to pull the tape back into the case. [2]

The first patented long tape measure in the United States was granted U.S. patent #29,096 issued 10 July 1860 to William H. Paine of Sheboygan, Wisconsin, [3] and produced by George M. Eddy and Company of Brooklyn, New York. This tape had no increments on it. It accurately measured only a distance equal to the total length of the tape from beginning to end marker, a brass piece attached to the tape at a measured distance. The measured length was marked on the case or crank.

Hiram A. Farrand with the Farrand Rapid Rule H. A. Farrand with Farrand Rapid Rule.jpg
Hiram A. Farrand with the Farrand Rapid Rule

Later, by the early 1870s, Justus Roe of Patchogue, New York added rivets attaching small brass washers to the tape to mark inches and feet. They were attached every inch in the first and last foot and every foot from one to the end of the last foot. A small brass tag, marked with a number indicating the number of feet to that point, was attached every five feet. This feature was never patented, but Justus Roe and Sons produced tape measures, "Roe Electric Reel Tape Measures", with this feature during the 1890s and early 1900s when they started etching or stamping increments and numbers on the tapes. (The "electric" part of the name was purely an affectation; there was nothing electrical about it.)

On 3 January 1922, Hiram A. Farrand received patent #1,402,589 for his concave-convex tape, a major improvement for spring pocket tape measures. [4] Between 1922 and December 1926, Farrand experimented with the help of The Brown Company in Berlin, New Hampshire. [5] It is there Farrand and William Wentworth Brown began mass-producing the tape measure. [6] Their product was later sold to Stanley Works. It was Farrand's concave-convex tape that went on to become the standard for the majority of pocket tape measure tapes today.

In the 1900's certain manufacturers started selling novelty tape measurers with prophecies and fortunes instead of numbers: users could check friends' heights and receive a fortune instead of their number. [7] [8]

TALmeter showing the three scales on the measuring tape. Tape measure No 1.jpg
TALmeter showing the three scales on the measuring tape.

In 1947, the Swedish engineer Ture Anders Ljungberg began developing an improved version and in 1954 the TALmeter was introduced. It features edges at both the end of the tape and the mouth to cut marks so measures (including arcs) can be transferred without reading the scale, as well as a fold-out metal tongue at the rear, also with an edge, to be used when taking internal measures. The tape has three scales: the normal metric, the internal scale and a diameter scale used for instance to measure sheet metal to be rolled into a cylinder of a certain diameter. It was produced by his own company T A Ljungberg AB until 2005, when it was bought by Hultafors in 2005, who retained the name "Talmeter" for the product they now refer to as a märkmeter (marker-meter). [9]

In March 1963, [10] Stanley Tools introduced the PowerLock tape measure series which defined the standard for tape measure form factors thats still persists today. It was novel in its use of a molded ABS case, thumb actuated tape lock, and riveted end hook. By 1989, Stanley was producing more than 200,000 tape measures every day. [11]

The first commercialized Digital Tape Measure was released by Starrett in 1995 under the DigiTape brand. In March 2022, REEKON Tools announced the T1 Tomahawk Digital Tape Measure which featured significant accuracy improvements over previous attempts. [12]

Design

The basic design on which all modern spring tape measures are built can trace its origins back to an 1864 patent by a Meriden, Connecticut resident named William H. Bangs Jr. According to the text of his patent, Bang's tape measure was an improvement on other versions previously designed. [13]

The spring tape measure has existed in the U.S. since Bang's patent in 1864, but its usage did not become very popular due to the difficulty in communication from one town to another and the expense of the tape measure. In the late 1920s, carpenters began slowly adopting H. A. Farrand's design as the one more commonly used. Farrand's new design was a concave/convex tape made of metal which would stand straight out a distance of four to six feet. This design is the basis for most modern pocket tape measures used today.

With the mass production of the integrated circuit (IC) the tape measure has also entered into the digital age with the digital tape measure. Some incorporate a digital screen to give measurement readouts in multiple formats. An early patent for this type of measure was published in 1977. [14]

There are also other styles of tape measures that have incorporated lasers and ultrasonic technology to measure the distance of an object with fairly reliable accuracy.

Tape measures often have black and red measurements on a yellow background as this is the optimal color combination for readability. [15]

United States

Tape measure with 16 and 19.2 inch marks Tape measure with 16 and 19.2 inch marks.jpg
Tape measure with 16 and 19.2 inch marks

Most tapes sold in the United States are inches- and feet-based. Some tapes have additional marks in the shape of small black diamonds, appearing every 19.2 inches (488 mm), used to mark out equal spacing for joists (five joists or trusses per US standard 8-foot (2,438 mm) length of building material). Many US tapes also have special markings every 16 inches (406 mm), which is a US standard interval for studs in construction: three spaces of 16 inches make exactly 4 feet (1,219 mm) which is the US commercial width of a sheet of plywood, gyproc or particle board.

A dual scale inch/centimeter tape measure. Dual Scale Stanley Tape Measure.jpg
A dual scale inch/centimeter tape measure.

The sale of dual Metric/US Customary scale measuring tapes is slowly becoming common in the United States. For example, in some Walmarts there are Hyper Tough brand tapes available in both US customary units and Metric units. Unlike US rulers, of which an overwhelming majority contain both centimeter and inch scales, tape measures are longer and thus traditionally have had scales in both inches and feet & inches. So, the inclusion of a metric scale requires the measuring device either to contain 3 scales of measurement or the elimination of one of the US Customary scales.

A US made 5 meter measuring tape with markings only in millimeters. FastCap Tape.jpg
A US made 5 meter measuring tape with markings only in millimeters.

The use of millimeter only tape measures for housing construction is a part of the US metric building code. [16] [17] This code does not permit the use of centimeters. Millimeters produce whole (integer) numbers, reduce arithmetic errors, thus decreasing wastage due to such errors. The US made measuring tape shown on the right is interesting in that it is a "Reverse Measuring Tape", where the measurements can be read from right to left just as well as they can be read when the tape is used from left to right.

As a curious fact, in 1956, Justus Roe, a surveyor and tape-maker by trade, made the 600 feet (183 m) gold-plated tape measure and, in a publicity gimmick, presented it to American professional baseball player Mickey Mantle. [18]

Australia

The building industry was the first major industry grouping in Australia to complete its change to metric, being completed by January 1976. [19]

Australian 5 Metre measuring tape, with the markings entirely in millimetres. Australian 5 Metre (millimetre) Measuring Tape (Start and End Sections).jpg
Australian 5 Metre measuring tape, with the markings entirely in millimetres.

In this the industry was grateful to the SAA (now Standards Australia) for the early production of the Standard AS 1155-1974 "Metric Units for Use in the Construction Industry", which specified the use of millimetres as the small unit for the metrication upgrade. In the adoption of the millimetre as the "small" unit of length for metrication (instead of the centimetre) the Metric Conversion Board leaned heavily on experience in the UK and within the ISO, where this decision had already been taken. [20] [21] [ circular reference ]

This was formally stated as follows: "The metric units for linear measurement in building and construction will be the metre (m) and the millimetre (mm), with the kilometre (km) being used where required. This will apply to all sectors of the industry, and the centimetre (cm) shall not be used. … the centimetre should not be used in any calculation and it should never be written down". [22]

The logic of using the millimetre in this context was that the metric system had been so designed that there would exist a multiple or submultiple for every use. Decimal fractions would not have to be used. Since the tolerances on building components and building practice would rarely be less than one millimetre, the millimetre became the sub-unit most appropriate to this industry.

Because of this, those in the building/construction industry mainly use millimetre only tapes. While dual scale tapes showing both inches and centimetres are sold, these are mainly imported low-cost items (since it would be a restriction of trade to not allow their importation).

United Kingdom

Tape measures sold in the UK often have dual scales for metric and imperial units. Like the American tape measures described above, they also have markings every 16 in (40.6 cm) and 19.2 in (48.8 cm).

Canada

Tape measures sold in Canada often have dual scales for metric and imperial units. All tapes in imperial units have markings every 16 in (40.6 cm), but not at every 19.2 in (48.8 cm).Home construction in Canada is largely, if not entirely, in imperial measure.

In surveying

Tapes are used in surveying for measuring horizontal, vertical or slope distances. Tapes are issued in various lengths and widths and graduated in a variety of ways. [23] The measuring tapes used for surveying purposes are classified in 4 types according to the material from which they are manufactured:

  1. Linen or Cloth Tape is made of linen cloth with brass handle at zero end whose length is included in the tape length. It is very light and handy, but cannot withstand much wear and tear. So it cannot be used for accurate work. It is little used in surveying except for taking subsidiary measurements like offsets.
  2. Metallic Tape is reinforced with copper wires to prevent stretching or twisting of fibers. They are available in many lengths but tapes of 20 m and 30 m are more commonly used. [24]
  3. Steel Tape is made of steel ribbon varying in width from 6 mm to 16 mm. It is available in lengths of 1, 2, 10, 30 and 50 meters. It cannot withstand rough usage and should therefore be used with great care.
  4. Invar Tape is made of invar, an alloy of steel (64%) and nickel (36%). It is 6 mm wide and is available in lengths of 30 m, 50 m and 100 m. It is costly and delicate and should be thus handled with great care. [25]

Accuracy and standardisation

Red EC classification symbols printed on a Class II measure, calibrated at 20degC. Magnusson ruban 8 m 25 mm 07.jpg
Red EC classification symbols printed on a Class II measure, calibrated at 20°C.

The accuracy of a tape measure is dependent on the ends of the tape and the markings printed onto the tape. The accuracy for the end of a retractable tape measure is dependent on the hook's sliding mechanism and thickness.

The European Commission (EC) has standardised a non-compulsory classification system for certifying tape measure accuracy, with certified tapes falling into one of three classes of accuracy: Classes I, II, and III. [26] For example, under specific conditions the tolerances for 10m long tapes are:

If a tape measure has been certified then the class rating is printed onto the tape alongside other symbols including the nominal length of the tape, the year of manufacture, the country of manufacture, and the name of the manufacturer. [27] For retractable tapes, Class I are the most accurate and tend to be the most expensive, while Class II tapes are the most common class available. [28]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Imperial units</span> System of measurements

The imperial system of units, imperial system or imperial units is the system of units first defined in the British Weights and Measures Act 1824 and continued to be developed through a series of Weights and Measures Acts and amendments.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Metrication</span> Conversion to the metric system of measurement

Metrication or metrification is the act or process of converting to the metric system of measurement. All over the world, countries have transitioned from local and traditional units of measurement to the metric system. This process began in France during the 1790s, and has persistently advanced over two centuries, accumulating into 95% of the world officially only using the modern metric system. Nonetheless, this also highlights that certain countries and sectors are either still transitioning or have chosen not to fully adopt the metric system.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Micrometer (device)</span> Tool for the precise measurement of a components length, width, and/or depth

A micrometer, sometimes known as a micrometer screw gauge, is a device incorporating a calibrated screw widely used for accurate measurement of components in mechanical engineering and machining as well as most mechanical trades, along with other metrological instruments such as dial, vernier, and digital calipers. Micrometers are usually, but not always, in the form of calipers. The spindle is a very accurately machined screw and the object to be measured is placed between the spindle and the anvil. The spindle is moved by turning the ratchet knob or thimble until the object to be measured is lightly touched by both the spindle and the anvil.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ruler</span> An instrument used to measure distances or to draw straight lines

A ruler, sometimes called a rule, scale or a line gauge, is an instrument used to make length measurements, whereby a user estimates a length by reading from a series of markings called "rules" along an edge of the device. Commonly the instrument is rigid and the edge itself is a straightedge, which additionally allows one to draw straight lines. Some rulers, such as cloth or paper tape measures, are non-rigid. Specialty rulers exist that have flexible edges that retain a chosen shape; these find use in sewing, arts, and crafts.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Foot (unit)</span> Customary unit of length

The foot is a unit of length in the British imperial and United States customary systems of measurement. The prime symbol, ′, is commonly used to represent the foot. In both customary and imperial units, one foot comprises 12 inches, and one yard comprises three feet. Since an international agreement in 1959, the foot is defined as equal to exactly 0.3048 meters.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Unit of length</span> Reference value of length

A unit of length refers to any arbitrarily chosen and accepted reference standard for measurement of length. The most common units in modern use are the metric units, used in every country globally. In the United States the U.S. customary units are also in use. British Imperial units are still used for some purposes in the United Kingdom and some other countries. The metric system is sub-divided into SI and non-SI units.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Metrication in the United States</span> Adoption of the metric system in the US

Metrication is the process of introducing the International System of Units, also known as SI units or the metric system, to replace a jurisdiction's traditional measuring units. U.S. customary units have been defined in terms of metric units since the 19th century, and the SI has been the "preferred system of weights and measures for United States trade and commerce" since 1975 according to United States law. However, conversion was not mandatory and many industries chose not to convert, and U.S. customary units remain in common use in many industries as well as in governmental use. There is government policy and metric (SI) program to implement and assist with metrication, however there is major social resistance for further metrication.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Shoe size</span> Measurement scale indicating the fitting size of a shoe

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Meterstick</span> Straightedge or folding ruler used to physically measure lengths

A meterstick, metrestick, or yardstick is either a straightedge or foldable ruler used to measure length, and is especially common in the construction industry. They are often made of wood or plastic, and often have metal or plastic joints so that they can be folded together. Normal length of a meterstick made for the international market is either one or two meters, while a yardstick made for the U.S. market is typically one yard long.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gunter's chain</span> Distance measuring device used for surveying

Gunter's chain is a distance-measuring device used for surveying. It was designed and introduced in 1620 by English clergyman and mathematician Edmund Gunter (1581–1626). It enabled plots of land to be accurately surveyed and plotted, for legal and commercial purposes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Calipers</span> Tool used to measure dimensions of an object

Caliper(s) or calliper(s) are an instrument used to measure the dimensions of an object; namely, the diameter or depth of a hole. The word caliper comes from latin roots meaning precise pincer.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Metrication in Canada</span> Adoption of the metric system of measurements in Canada

Metrication in Canada began in 1970 and ceased in 1985. While Canada has converted to the metric system for many purposes, there is still significant use of non-metric units and standards in many sectors of the Canadian economy and everyday life today. This is mainly due to historical ties with the United Kingdom, the traditional use of the imperial system of measurement in Canada, proximity to the United States, and strong public opposition to metrication during the transition period.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Metrication in Australia</span> Adoption of the metric system of measurements in Australia

Metrication in Australia effectively began in 1966 with the conversion to decimal currency under the auspices of the Decimal Currency Board. The conversion of measurements—metrication—commenced subsequently in 1971, under the direction of the Metric Conversion Board and actively proceeded until the Board was disbanded in 1981.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Metrication in the United Kingdom</span> Adoption of the metric system of measurements in the United Kingdom

Metrication, the process of introducing the metric system of measurement in place of imperial units, has made steady progress in the United Kingdom since the mid-20th century but today remains equivocal and varies by context. Most of government, industry, commerce, and scientific research use the metric system. Imperial units are officially used to specify journey distances, vehicle speeds and the sizes of returnable milk containers, beer and cider glasses, fresh milk is often still sold in multiples of pints, with the metric equivalent also marked, and precious metals are sold by the troy ounce. Metric units must be used when selling other packaged or loose goods, and imperial units can stand alongside the metric units, but it cannot stand out more than the metric units. Imperial units are also often used to describe body measurements and vehicle fuel economy. The national curriculum requires metric units and imperial units that still remain in common usage to be taught in state schools.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of measurement</span>

The earliest recorded systems of weights and measures originate in the 3rd or 4th millennium BC. Even the very earliest civilizations needed measurement for purposes of agriculture, construction and trade. Early standard units might only have applied to a single community or small region, with every area developing its own standards for lengths, areas, volumes and masses. Often such systems were closely tied to one field of use, so that volume measures used, for example, for dry grains were unrelated to those for liquids, with neither bearing any particular relationship to units of length used for measuring cloth or land. With development of manufacturing technologies, and the growing importance of trade between communities and ultimately across the Earth, standardized weights and measures became critical. Starting in the 18th century, modernized, simplified and uniform systems of weights and measures were developed, with the fundamental units defined by ever more precise methods in the science of metrology. The discovery and application of electricity was one factor motivating the development of standardized internationally applicable units.

Traditional Japanese units of measurement or the shakkanhō (尺貫法) is the traditional system of measurement used by the people of the Japanese archipelago. It is largely based on the Chinese system, which spread to Japan and the rest of the Sinosphere in antiquity. It has remained mostly unaltered since the adoption of the measures of the Tang dynasty in 701. Following the 1868 Meiji Restoration, Imperial Japan adopted the metric system and defined the traditional units in metric terms on the basis of a prototype metre and kilogram. The present values of most Korean and Taiwanese units of measurement derive from these values as well.

A thousandth of an inch is a derived unit of length in a system of units using inches. Equal to 1⁄1000 of an inch, a thousandth is commonly called a thou or, particularly in North America, a mil.

A scale ruler is a tool for measuring lengths and transferring measurements at a fixed ratio of length; two common examples are an architect's scale and engineer's scale. In scientific and engineering terminology, a device to measure linear distance and create proportional linear measurements is called a scale. A device for drawing straight lines is a straight edge or ruler. In common usage, both are referred to as a ruler.

A graduation is a marking used to indicate points on a visual scale, which can be present on a container, a measuring device, or the axes of a line plot, usually one of many along a line or curve, each in the form of short line segments perpendicular to the line or curve. Often, some of these line segments are longer and marked with a numeral, such as every fifth or tenth graduation. The scale itself can be linear or nonlinear.

Sweden decided to adopt the metric system in 1876. After a ten-year transition period starting 1879, the use of legacy units was outlawed by the beginning of 1889.

References

  1. ↑ Aird, Forbes (1999). Mechanic's guide to precision measuring tools. Osceola, WI: MBI Pub. Co. p. 18. ISBN   9780760305454.
  2. ↑ U. S. Patent Full-Text Database Number Search, Patent #45,372 Retrieved on 23 October 2017.
  3. ↑ U. S. Patent Full-Text Database Number Search, Patent #29,096 Retrieved 23 December 2017.
  4. ↑ US 1402589,Hiram A. Farrand,"Rule",issued 3 January 1922
  5. ↑ Hiram A. Farrand Inc. (December 1930). Popular Science. Popular Science Monthly. Retrieved 3 November 2011.
  6. ↑ Walter W. Jacob (September 2004). "Stanley Advertising and Imprinted Tape Rules". The Chronicle of the Early American Industries Association. Retrieved 3 November 2011.
  7. ↑ Opie, Iona Archibald; Opie, Peter (1987). The lore and language of schoolchildren. Internet Archive. Oxford [Oxfordshire]; New York : Oxford University Press. ISBN   978-0-19-282059-4.
  8. ↑ "Rare Vintage Deans Made in England Fortune Telling Tape - Etsy". www.etsy.com. Retrieved 29 June 2022.
  9. ↑ "Talmeter — Hultafors". Archived from the original on 9 February 2013.
  10. ↑ "Worth the Money: Stanley Tape Measure". Popular Mechanics. 20 March 2014. Retrieved 15 March 2023.
  11. ↑ Uchitelle, Louis (23 July 1989). "The Stanley Works Goes Global". The New York Times. ISSN   0362-4331 . Retrieved 15 March 2023.
  12. ↑ "I Never Thought I'd Have Gadget Lust for a Tape Measure, but Here We Are". Gizmodo. 23 March 2022. Retrieved 15 March 2023.
  13. ↑ U. S. Patent Full-Text Database Number Search, Patent #45,372 Retrieved 23 October 2017.
  14. ↑ "Electronic read out tape measure". Google Patents. 21 June 1977. Retrieved 3 January 2015.
  15. ↑ "Optimal Colors to Improve Readability for People with Dyslexia - Text Customization for Readability Online Symposium". w3.org. Retrieved 14 September 2017.
  16. ↑ Public Buildings Service (September 1995). "Metric Design Guide (PBS-PQ260)" (PDF). U.S. General Services Administration.
  17. ↑ Holland, Andrew J. (1997). Metric Implementation in US Construction (Master's thesis). University of Florida. hdl:10945/26631.
  18. ↑ "Suffolk County News, Via the Grapevine" (PDF). 13 July 1956.
  19. ↑ Wilks, Kevin Joseph (1992). Metrication in Australia (PDF). Australian Government Pub. Service. Section 9.2 Page 34. ISBN   0-644-24860-2.
  20. ↑ Kevin Wilkes (1992). "Metrication in Australia" (PDF). Book. Commonwealth of AustraliaEntire document.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: postscript (link)
  21. ↑ ISO 2848
  22. ↑ (Standards Association of Australia "Metric Handbook, Metric Conversion in Building and Construction" 1972)
  23. ↑ "Surveying tapes". tpub.com.
  24. ↑ book on surveying by "Dr. B.c Punmia and Ashok Kumar Jain"
  25. ↑ surveying volume 1 by Prof. C.L Kochher, p. 17
  26. ↑ Directive 2014/32/EU of the European Parliament, vol. OJ L, 26 February 2014, retrieved 10 October 2020
  27. ↑ "Rollbandmasse". sola.at. Retrieved 10 October 2020.
  28. ↑ "Tape Measures Guide | RS Components". uk.rs-online.com. Retrieved 10 October 2020.
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