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Cognitive psychology is the scientific study of mental processes such as attention,language use,memory,perception,problem solving,creativity,and reasoning.
Cognition refers to "the mental action or process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought,experience,and the senses". It encompasses all aspects of intellectual functions and processes such as:perception,attention,thought,intelligence,the formation of knowledge,memory and working memory,judgment and evaluation,reasoning and computation,problem solving and decision making,comprehension and production of language. Imagination is also a cognitive process,it is considered as such because it involves thinking about possibilities. Cognitive processes use existing knowledge and discover new knowledge.
Neurolinguistics is the study of neural mechanisms in the human brain that controls the comprehension,production,and acquisition of language. As an interdisciplinary field,neurolinguistics draws methods and theories from fields such as neuroscience,linguistics,cognitive science,communication disorders and neuropsychology. Researchers are drawn to the field from a variety of backgrounds,bringing along a variety of experimental techniques as well as widely varying theoretical perspectives. Much work in neurolinguistics is informed by models in psycholinguistics and theoretical linguistics,and is focused on investigating how the brain can implement the processes that theoretical and psycholinguistics propose are necessary in producing and comprehending language. Neurolinguists study the physiological mechanisms by which the brain processes information related to language,and evaluate linguistic and psycholinguistic theories,using aphasiology,brain imaging,electrophysiology,and computer modeling.
Semantic memory refers to general world knowledge that humans have accumulated throughout their lives. This general knowledge is intertwined in experience and dependent on culture.
An event-related potential (ERP) is the measured brain response that is the direct result of a specific sensory,cognitive,or motor event. More formally,it is any stereotyped electrophysiological response to a stimulus. The study of the brain in this way provides a noninvasive means of evaluating brain functioning.
The picture superiority effect refers to the phenomenon in which pictures and images are more likely to be remembered than are words. This effect has been demonstrated in numerous experiments using different methods. It is based on the notion that "human memory is extremely sensitive to the symbolic modality of presentation of event information". Explanations for the picture superiority effect are not concrete and are still being debated.
The Levels of Processing model,created by Fergus I. M. Craik and Robert S. Lockhart in 1972,describes memory recall of stimuli as a function of the depth of mental processing. Deeper levels of analysis produce more elaborate,longer-lasting,and stronger memory traces than shallow levels of analysis. Depth of processing falls on a shallow to deep continuum. Shallow processing leads to a fragile memory trace that is susceptible to rapid decay. Conversely,deep processing results in a more durable memory trace.
The N400 is a component of time-locked EEG signals known as event-related potentials (ERP). It is a negative-going deflection that peaks around 400 milliseconds post-stimulus onset,although it can extend from 250-500 ms,and is typically maximal over centro-parietal electrode sites. The N400 is part of the normal brain response to words and other meaningful stimuli,including visual and auditory words,sign language signs,pictures,faces,environmental sounds,and smells.
The lexical decision task (LDT) is a procedure used in many psychology and psycholinguistics experiments. The basic procedure involves measuring how quickly people classify stimuli as words or nonwords.
The P600 is an event-related potential (ERP) component,or peak in electrical brain activity measured by electroencephalography (EEG). It is a language-relevant ERP component and is thought to be elicited by hearing or reading grammatical errors and other syntactic anomalies. Therefore,it is a common topic of study in neurolinguistic experiments investigating sentence processing in the human brain.
The early left anterior negativity is an event-related potential in electroencephalography (EEG),or component of brain activity that occurs in response to a certain kind of stimulus. It is characterized by a negative-going wave that peaks around 200 milliseconds or less after the onset of a stimulus,and most often occurs in response to linguistic stimuli that violate word-category or phrase structure rules. As such,it is frequently a topic of study in neurolinguistics experiments,specifically in areas such as sentence processing. While it is frequently used in language research,there is no evidence yet that it is necessarily a language-specific phenomenon.
Priming is a phenomenon whereby exposure to one stimulus influences a response to a subsequent stimulus,without conscious guidance or intention. The priming effect refers to the positive or negative effect of a rapidly presented stimulus on the processing of a second stimulus that appears shortly after. Generally speaking,the generation of priming effect depends on the existence of some positive or negative relationship between priming and target stimuli. For example,the word nurse is recognized more quickly following the word doctor than following the word bread. Priming can be perceptual,associative,repetitive,positive,negative,affective,semantic,or conceptual. Priming effects involve word recognition,semantic processing,attention,unconscious processing,and many other issues,and are related to differences in various writing systems. Research,however,has yet to firmly establish the duration of priming effects,yet their onset can be almost instantaneous.
Difference due to memory (Dm) indexes differences in neural activity during the study phase of an experiment for items that subsequently are remembered compared to items that are later forgotten. It is mainly discussed as an event-related potential (ERP) effect that appears in studies employing a subsequent memory paradigm,in which ERPs are recorded when a participant is studying a list of materials and trials are sorted as a function of whether they go on to be remembered or not in the test phase. For meaningful study material,such as words or line drawings,items that are subsequently remembered typically elicit a more positive waveform during the study phase. This difference typically occurs in the range of 400–800 milliseconds (ms) and is generally greatest over centro-parietal recording sites,although these characteristics are modulated by many factors.
The N200,or N2,is an event-related potential (ERP) component. An ERP can be monitored using a non-invasive electroencephalography (EEG) cap that is fitted over the scalp on human subjects. An EEG cap allows researchers and clinicians to monitor the minute electrical activity that reaches the surface of the scalp from post-synaptic potentials in neurons,which fluctuate in relation to cognitive processing. EEG provides millisecond-level temporal resolution and is therefore known as one of the most direct measures of covert mental operations in the brain. The N200 in particular is a negative-going wave that peaks 200-350ms post-stimulus and is found primarily over anterior scalp sites. Past research focused on the N200 as a mismatch detector,but it has also been found to reflect executive cognitive control functions,and has recently been used in the study of language.
The late positive component or late positive complex (LPC) is a positive-going event-related brain potential (ERP) component that has been important in studies of explicit recognition memory. It is generally found to be largest over parietal scalp sites,beginning around 400–500 ms after the onset of a stimulus and lasting for a few hundred milliseconds. It is an important part of the ERP "old/new" effect,which may also include modulations of an earlier component similar to an N400. Similar positivities have sometimes been referred to as the P3b,P300,and P600. Here,we use the term "LPC" in reference to this late positive component.
Linguistic prediction is a phenomenon in psycholinguistics occurring whenever information about a word or other linguistic unit is activated before that unit is actually encountered. Evidence from eyetracking,event-related potentials,and other experimental methods indicates that in addition to integrating each subsequent word into the context formed by previously encountered words,language users may,under certain conditions,try to predict upcoming words. In particular,prediction seems to occur regularly when the context of a sentence greatly limits the possible words that have not yet been revealed. For instance,a person listening to a sentence like,"In the summer it is hot,and in the winter it is..." would be highly likely to predict the sentence completion "cold" in advance of actually hearing it. A form of prediction is also thought to occur in some types of lexical priming,a phenomenon whereby a word becomes easier to process if it is preceded by a related word. Linguistic prediction is an active area of research in psycholinguistics and cognitive neuroscience.
Sex differences in cognition are widely studied in the current scientific literature. Biological and genetic differences in combination with environment and culture have resulted in the cognitive differences among men and women. Among biological factors,hormones such as testosterone and estrogen may play some role mediating these differences. Among differences of diverse mental and cognitive abilities,the largest or most well known are those relating to spatial abilities,social cognition and verbal skills and abilities.
The bi-directional hypothesis of language and action proposes that the sensorimotor and language comprehension areas of the brain exert reciprocal influence over one another. This hypothesis argues that areas of the brain involved in movement and sensation,as well as movement itself,influence cognitive processes such as language comprehension. In addition,the reverse effect is argued,where it is proposed that language comprehension influences movement and sensation. Proponents of the bi-directional hypothesis of language and action conduct and interpret linguistic,cognitive,and movement studies within the framework of embodied cognition and embodied language processing. Embodied language developed from embodied cognition,and proposes that sensorimotor systems are not only involved in the comprehension of language,but that they are necessary for understanding the semantic meaning of words.
Social cognitive neuroscience is the scientific study of the biological processes underpinning social cognition. Specifically,it uses the tools of neuroscience to study "the mental mechanisms that create,frame,regulate,and respond to our experience of the social world". Social cognitive neuroscience uses the epistemological foundations of cognitive neuroscience,and is closely related to social neuroscience. Social cognitive neuroscience employs human neuroimaging,typically using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Human brain stimulation techniques such as transcranial magnetic stimulation and transcranial direct-current stimulation are also used. In nonhuman animals,direct electrophysiological recordings and electrical stimulation of single cells and neuronal populations are utilized for investigating lower-level social cognitive processes.
Randi Martin is the Elma Schneider Professor of Psychology at Rice University and Director of the T. L. L. Temple Foundation Neuroplasticity Research Laboratory. With Suparna Rajaram and Judith Kroll,Martin co-founded Women in Cognitive Science in 2001,an organization supported in part through the National Science Foundation's ADVANCE Leadership program. She is a Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) and the Society of Experimental Psychologists (SEP).
References
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- ↑ "Early Career Award Addresses - Society for Psychophysiological Research". sprweb.org. Retrieved 2019-04-18.
- ↑ Van Petten, Cyma; Roberts, William J.; Rhodes, Dell L. (1983). "Behavioral test of tolerance for aversive mechanical stimuli in sympathectomized cats". Pain. 15 (1): 177–189. doi:10.1016/0304-3959(83)90017-9. ISSN 0304-3959. PMID 6844026. S2CID 8087850.
- ↑ Neuringer, M; Connor, W E; Van Petten, C; Barstad, L (1984-01-01). "Dietary omega-3 fatty acid deficiency and visual loss in infant rhesus monkeys". Journal of Clinical Investigation. 73 (1): 272–276. doi:10.1172/JCI111202. ISSN 0021-9738. PMC 425011 . PMID 6317716.
- ↑ "Cyma Van Petten CV". bingweb.binghamton.edu. Retrieved 2019-05-04.
- ↑ Van Petten, Cyma; Kutas, Marta (1987). "Ambiguous words in context: An event-related potential analysis of the time course of meaning activation". Journal of Memory and Language. 26 (2): 188–208. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.423.5713 . doi:10.1016/0749-596X(87)90123-9.
- ↑ Van Petten, Cyma; Kutas, Marta (1990). "Interactions between sentence context and word frequencyinevent-related brainpotentials". Memory & Cognition. 18 (4): 380–393. doi: 10.3758/BF03197127 . ISSN 0090-502X. PMID 2381317.
- ↑ Van Petten, Cyma; Coulson, Seana; Rubin, Susan; Plante, Elena; Parks, Marjorie (1999). "Time course of word identification and semantic integration in spoken language". Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition. 25 (2): 394–417. doi:10.1037/0278-7393.25.2.394. ISSN 1939-1285.
- ↑ Coulson, Seana; Van Petten, Cyma (2002-09-01). "Conceptual integration and metaphor: An event-related potential study". Memory & Cognition. 30 (6): 958–968. doi: 10.3758/BF03195780 . ISSN 1532-5946. PMID 12450098.
- ↑ Senkfor, Ava J.; Van Petten, Cyma (1998). "Who said what? An event-related potential investigation of source and item memory". Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition. 24 (4): 1005–1025. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.465.5513 . doi:10.1037/0278-7393.24.4.1005. ISSN 1939-1285.
- ↑ Swick, Diane; Senkfor, Ava J.; Van Petten, Cyma (2006). "Source memory retrieval is affected by aging and prefrontal lesions: Behavioral and ERP evidence". Brain Research. 1107 (1): 161–176. doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2006.06.013. PMC 2365725 . PMID 16828722.
- ↑ "Project Information - NIH RePORTER - NIH Research Portfolio Online Reporting Tools Expenditures and Results". projectreporter.nih.gov. Retrieved 2019-05-07.
- ↑ "Project Information - NIH RePORTER - NIH Research Portfolio Online Reporting Tools Expenditures and Results". projectreporter.nih.gov. Retrieved 2019-05-07.
- ↑ "Project Information - NIH RePORTER - NIH Research Portfolio Online Reporting Tools Expenditures and Results". projectreporter.nih.gov. Retrieved 2019-05-07.