Dinotoxin

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Dinotoxins are a group of toxins which are produced by flagellate, aquatic, unicellular protists called dinoflagellates. Dinotoxin was coined by Hardy and Wallace [1] in 2012 as a general term for the variety of toxins produced by dinoflagellates. Dinoflagellates are an enormous group of marine life, with much diversity. With great diversity comes many different toxins, however, there are a few toxins (or derivatives) that multiple species have in common.

Contents

Dinoflagellates normally have a low toxin production rate, therefore in small concentrations their toxins are not potent. However their toxins are highly poisonous in large concentrations. They are capable of poisoning various species of marine life such as many fish and shellfish, and affecting the nervous system of any wildlife or humans that consume the infected marine life, or drink the contaminated water. [2] [3] Under bloom conditions, commonly referred to as red tides or harmful algal blooms, dinoflagellates are capable of producing immense dinotoxin concentrations causing large fish die-offs, and contamination of shellfish. [4] This contamination of shellfish leads to multiple severe human related illnesses. [2] [4] These illnesses include paralytic shellfish poisoning, diarrhetic shellfish poisoning, neurotoxic shellfish poisoning, and ciguatera fish poisoning. [2]

Dinotoxins are impacting not only the marine ecosystem, but the economy as well. [4] The economic impact is increasing compared to past years, due to the increase in seafood consumption, and coastal tourism. [4]

Common toxins

Below are three of the most common dinotoxins, these toxins are produced by a large variety of dinoflagellates. There is thought to be more than a few hundred different toxins produced by dinoflagellates.

Saxitoxins and Gonyautoxins are deadly neurotoxins which cause paralytic shellfish poisoning. [4] [5] [6] Saxitoxin B1 has a lethal concentration of 86 to 788 micrograms per kilogram of body weight, [7] while Gonyautoxins C1 and C2 are lethal in concentrations of 411 micrograms per kilogram of body weight. [6]

Yessotoxins (YTXs) are potent cytotoxins which are made of disulfated polyether compounds. This toxins compromises the tumor suppressive functions of the E-cadherin–catenin system in epithelial cells. [8]

Function

Dinotoxins are produced for one of two intentional reasons; either to aid in predation or to act as a defense against predation. Toxins may also be produced as an unintentional byproduct due to metabolic processes that takes place within the organism. [9]

Genetics

The molecular genetics of dinotoxin synthesis is not widely understood, [10] but the polyketide pathway involving polyketide synthase (PKS) is known to be associated with the production of dinotoxins. [11] The toxins released by dinoflagellates commonly include sulfated polysaccharides. [12] One common toxin, saxitoxin, blocks sodium ions from moving through sodium channels on cell membranes. [6]

Applications

Dinotoxins are high-value toxins in multiple fields of work such as chemical research, toxicological, and biomedical. [8]

An economic increase in the seafood industry has made these toxins of higher interest to scientists. Studying dinotoxins allows scientists to create toxin assays can be used to analyze fish and seafood for safe levels of toxicity before consumption. [8]

Antibodies can also be developed against dinotoxins, which can be effective in potentially harmful outbreak or field situations. [13]

Some dinotoxins are useful in pain management. [14] [15] These toxins may have potential therapeutic effects along with other medical applications, including antiviral, antibacterial, and antioxidant activity. Free-radical scavenging, inflammation control, and tumor destruction are also applications of dinotoxins. [2] [8] They can act as anticoagulants, biolubricants, and can prevent pathogenic microorganisms from binding to cell membranes with an anti-adhesive property. [12]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Algal bloom</span> Spread of planktonic algae in water

An algal bloom or algae bloom is a rapid increase or accumulation in the population of algae in freshwater or marine water systems. It is often recognized by the discoloration in the water from the algae's pigments. The term algae encompasses many types of aquatic photosynthetic organisms, both macroscopic multicellular organisms like seaweed and microscopic unicellular organisms like cyanobacteria. Algal bloom commonly refers to the rapid growth of microscopic unicellular algae, not macroscopic algae. An example of a macroscopic algal bloom is a kelp forest.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tetrodotoxin</span> Neurotoxin

Tetrodotoxin (TTX) is a potent neurotoxin. Its name derives from Tetraodontiformes, an order that includes pufferfish, porcupinefish, ocean sunfish, and triggerfish; several of these species carry the toxin. Although tetrodotoxin was discovered in these fish and found in several other animals, it is actually produced by certain infecting or symbiotic bacteria like Pseudoalteromonas, Pseudomonas, and Vibrio as well as other species found in animals.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cyanotoxin</span> Toxin produced by cyanobacteria

Cyanotoxins are toxins produced by cyanobacteria. Cyanobacteria are found almost everywhere, but particularly in lakes and in the ocean where, under high concentration of phosphorus conditions, they reproduce exponentially to form blooms. Blooming cyanobacteria can produce cyanotoxins in such concentrations that they can poison and even kill animals and humans. Cyanotoxins can also accumulate in other animals such as fish and shellfish, and cause poisonings such as shellfish poisoning.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Saxitoxin</span> Paralytic shellfish toxin

Saxitoxin (STX) is a potent neurotoxin and the best-known paralytic shellfish toxin (PST). Ingestion of saxitoxin by humans, usually by consumption of shellfish contaminated by toxic algal blooms, is responsible for the illness known as paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tomalley</span> Lobster or crab organs eaten as a delicacy

Tomalley, crab fat, or lobster paste is the soft, green substance found in the body cavity of lobsters, that fulfills the functions of both the liver and the pancreas. Tomalley corresponds to the hepatopancreas in other arthropods. It is considered a delicacy, and may be eaten alone but is often added to sauces for flavour and as a thickening agent. The term lobster paste or lobster pâté can also be used to indicate a mixture of tomalley and lobster roe. Lobster bisque, lobster stock, and lobster consommé are made using lobster bodies (heads), often including tomalley.

Okadaic acid, C44H68O13, is a toxin produced by several species of dinoflagellates, and is known to accumulate in both marine sponges and shellfish. One of the primary causes of diarrhetic shellfish poisoning, okadaic acid is a potent inhibitor of specific protein phosphatases and is known to have a variety of negative effects on cells. A polyketide, polyether derivative of a C38 fatty acid, okadaic acid and other members of its family have shined light upon many biological processes both with respect to dinoflagellete polyketide synthesis as well as the role of protein phosphatases in cell growth.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Paralytic shellfish poisoning</span> Syndrome of shellfish poisoning

Paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) is one of the four recognized syndromes of shellfish poisoning, which share some common features and are primarily associated with bivalve mollusks. These shellfish are filter feeders and accumulate neurotoxins, chiefly saxitoxin, produced by microscopic algae, such as dinoflagellates, diatoms, and cyanobacteria. Dinoflagellates of the genus Alexandrium are the most numerous and widespread saxitoxin producers and are responsible for PSP blooms in subarctic, temperate, and tropical locations. The majority of toxic blooms have been caused by the morphospecies Alexandrium catenella, Alexandrium tamarense, Gonyaulax catenella and Alexandrium fundyense, which together comprise the A. tamarense species complex. In Asia, PSP is mostly associated with the occurrence of the species Pyrodinium bahamense.

<i>Anabaena circinalis</i> Species of bacterium

Anabaena circinalis is a species of Gram-negative, photosynthetic cyanobacteria common to freshwater environments throughout the world. Much of the scientific interest in A. circinalis owes to its production of several potentially harmful cyanotoxins, ranging in potency from irritating to lethal. Under favorable conditions for growth, A. circinalis forms large algae-like blooms, potentially harming the flora and fauna of an area.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Neurotoxic shellfish poisoning</span> Syndrome of shellfish poisoning

Neurotoxic shellfish poisoning (NSP) is caused by the consumption of brevetoxins, which are marine toxins produced by the dinoflagellate Karenia brevis. These toxins can produce a series of gastrointestinal and neurological effects. Outbreaks of NSP commonly take place following harmful algal bloom (HAB) events, commonly referred to as "Florida red tide". Algal blooms are a naturally-occurring phenomenon, however their frequency has been increasing in recent decades at least in-part due to human activities, climate changes, and the eutrophication of marine waters. HABs have been occurring for all of documented history, evidenced by the Native Americans' understanding of the dangers of shellfish consumption during periods of marine bioluminescence. Blooms have been noted to occur as far north as North Carolina and are commonly seen alongside the widespread death of fish and sea birds. In addition to the effects on human health, the economic impact of HAB-associated shellfish toxin outbreaks can have significant economic implications as well due to not only the associated healthcare costs, but the adverse impact on the commercial shellfish industry.

<i>Leukoma staminea</i> Species of bivalve

Leukoma staminea, commonly known as the Pacific littleneck clam, the littleneck clam, the rock cockle, the hardshell clam, the Tomales Bay cockle, the rock clam or the ribbed carpet shell, is a species of bivalve mollusc in the family Veneridae. This species of mollusc was exploited by early humans in North America; for example, the Chumash peoples of Central California harvested these clams in Morro Bay approximately 1,000 years ago, and the distinctive shells form middens near their settlements.

Alexandrium tamarense is a species of dinoflagellates known to produce saxitoxin, a neurotoxin which causes the human illness clinically known as paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP). Multiple species of phytoplankton are known to produce saxitoxin, including at least 10 other species from the genus Alexandrium.

<i>Gonyaulax</i> Genus of single-celled organisms

Gonyaulax is a genus of dinoflagellates with the type species Gonyaulax spinifera Diesing. Gonyaulax belongs to red dinoflagellates and commonly causes red tides. It secretes a poisonous toxin known as "saxitoxin" which causes paralysis in humans.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Neosaxitoxin</span> Chemical compound

Neosaxitoxin (NSTX) is included, as other saxitoxin-analogs, in a broad group of natural neurotoxic alkaloids, commonly known as the paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs). The parent compound of PSTs, saxitoxin (STX), is a tricyclic perhydropurine alkaloid, which can be substituted at various positions, leading to more than 30 naturally occurring STX analogues. All of them are related imidazoline guanidinium derivatives.

Alexandrium monilatum is a species of armored, photosynthetic, marine dinoflagellates. It produces toxins that, when present in high concentrations as "red tides", can kill fish and reduce growth rates of shellfish.

<i>Saxidomus gigantea</i> Species of bivalve

Saxidomus gigantea is a large, edible saltwater clam, a marine bivalve mollusk in the family Veneridae, the venus clams. It can be found along the western coast of North America, ranging from the Aleutian Islands to San Francisco Bay. Common names for this clam include butter clam, Washington clam, smooth Washington clam and money shell.

<i>Pyrodinium bahamense</i> Species of protist

Pyrodinium was first discovered in 1906 in the waters around New Providence Island in the Bahamas. Pyrodinium is a monospecific species with two varieties, Pyrodinium bahamense var. compressum and Pyrodinium bahamanse var. bahamense. Pyrodinium is well known for producing Paralytic Shellfish Toxins (PSTs), e.g. saxitoxin, and the bioluminescence that lights up the bioluminescent bays in Puerto Rico and the Bahamas.

Alexandrium catenella is a species of dinoflagellates. It is among the group of Alexandrium species that produce toxins that cause paralytic shellfish poisoning, and is a cause of red tide. ‘’Alexandrium catenella’’ is observed in cold, coastal waters, generally at temperate latitudes. These organisms have been found in the west coast of North America, Japan, Australia, and parts of South Africa.

Canadian Reference Materials (CRM) are certified reference materials of high-quality and reliability produced by the National Metrology Institute of Canada – the National Research Council Canada. The NRC Certified Reference Materials program is operated by the Measurement Science and Standards portfolio and provides CRMs for environmental, biotoxin, food, nutritional supplement, and stable isotope analysis. The program was established in 1976 to produce CRMs for inorganic and organic marine environmental analysis and remains internationally recognized producer of CRMs.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gonyautoxin</span> Chemical compound

Gonyautoxins (GTX) are a few similar toxic molecules that are naturally produced by algae. They are part of the group of saxitoxins, a large group of neurotoxins along with a molecule that is also referred to as saxitoxin (STX), neosaxitoxin (NSTX) and decarbamoylsaxitoxin (dcSTX). Currently eight molecules are assigned to the group of gonyautoxins, known as gonyautoxin 1 (GTX-1) to gonyautoxin 8 (GTX-8). Ingestion of gonyautoxins through consumption of mollusks contaminated by toxic algae can cause a human illness called paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Decarbamoylsaxitoxin</span> Chemical compound

Decarbamoylsaxitoxin, abbreviated as dcSTX, is a neurotoxin which is naturally produced in dinoflagellate. DcSTX is one of the many analogues of saxitoxin (STX).

References

  1. ↑ Hardy, CR; Wallace JR (2012). "9". Algae in forensic investigations. London: John Wiley and Sons, Ltd. pp. 145–173.
  2. 1 2 3 4 García Camacho, F.; Rodríguez, J.J. Gallardo; Mirón, A. Sánchez; García, M.C. Cerón; Belarbi, E.H.; Grima, E. Molina (2007). "Determination of shear stress thresholds in toxic dinoflagellates cultured in shaken flasks". Process Biochemistry. 42 (11): 1506–1515. doi:10.1016/j.procbio.2007.08.001.
  3. ↑ Hallegraeff, Gustaaf M. (1992). "Harmful algal blooms in the Australian region". Marine Pollution Bulletin. 25 (5–8): 186–190. doi:10.1016/0025-326x(92)90223-s.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 Gas, Fabienne; Pinto, Laetitia; Baus, Béatrice; Gaufres, Laure; Crassous, Marie-Pierre; Compere, Chantal; Quéméneur, Eric (2009). "Monoclonal antibody against the surface of Alexandrium minutum used in a whole-cell ELISA". Harmful Algae. 8 (3): 538–545. doi:10.1016/j.hal.2008.08.027.
  5. ↑ Marine biotoxins. 2004. ISBN   978-92-5-105129-0. ISSN   0254-4725.{{cite book}}: |website= ignored (help)
  6. 1 2 3 Gessner, Bradford D; Middaugh, JP; Doucette, GJ (1997). "Paralytic shellfish poisoning in Kodiak, Alaska". Western Journal of Medicine. 166 (5): 351–353. PMC   1304631 . PMID   9392992.
  7. ↑ Rodrigue, D.C.; Etzel, R.A.; Hall, S; Blake, P.A. (April 1990). "Lethal paralytic shellfish poisoning in Guatemala". American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene. 42 (2): 267–71. doi:10.4269/ajtmh.1990.42.267. PMID   2316796.
  8. 1 2 3 4 Gallardo Rodríguez, J.J.; Mirón, A. Sánchez; Camacho, F. García; García, M.C. Cerón; Belarbi, E.H.; Grima, E. Molina (2010). "Culture of dinoflagellates in a fed-batch and continuous stirred-tank photobioreactors: Growth, oxidative stress and toxin production". Process Biochemistry. 45 (5): 660–666. doi:10.1016/j.procbio.2009.12.018.
  9. ↑ Magnuson, Roy David (1 September 2007). "Hypothetical Functions of Toxin-Antitoxin Systems". Journal of Bacteriology. 189 (17): 6089–6092. doi:10.1128/JB.00958-07. ISSN   0021-9193. PMC   1951896 . PMID   17616596.
  10. ↑ Orr, Russell; Stüken, Anke; Murray, Shauna; Jakobsen, Kjetill (2013). "Evolution and Distribution of Saxitoxin Biosynthesis in Dinoflagellates". Marine Drugs. 11 (8): 2814–2828. doi: 10.3390/md11082814 . PMC   3766867 . PMID   23966031.
  11. ↑ Shimizu, Y. (2003). "Microalgal metabolites". Current Opinion in Microbiology. 6 (3): 236–243. doi:10.1016/s1369-5274(03)00064-x. PMID   12831899.
  12. 1 2 Raposo, Maria Filomena de Jesus; Morais, Alcina Maria Miranda Bernardo de; Morais, Rui Manuel Santos Costa de (1 January 2015). "Bioactivity and Applications of Polysaccharides from Marine Microalgae". Polysaccharides. Springer International Publishing. pp. 1683–1727. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-16298-0_47. ISBN   978-3-319-16297-3. S2CID   85628022.
  13. ↑ Wong, Chun-Kwan; Hung, Patricia; Ng, Edward A. L.; Lee, Kellie L. H.; Wong, Grace T. C.; Kam, Kai-Man (1 September 2010). "Operational application of a rapid antibody-based detection assay for first line screening of paralytic shellfish toxins in shellfish". Harmful Algae. 9 (6): 636–646. doi:10.1016/j.hal.2010.05.004.
  14. ↑ Hagen, Neil A.; Souich, Patrick du; Lapointe, Bernard; Ong-Lam, May; Dubuc, Benoit; Walde, David; Love, Robin; Ngoc, Anh Ho (2008). "Tetrodotoxin for Moderate to Severe Cancer Pain: A Randomized, Double Blind, Parallel Design Multicenter Study". Journal of Pain and Symptom Management. 35 (4): 420–429. doi: 10.1016/j.jpainsymman.2007.05.011 . PMID   18243639.
  15. ↑ Hagen, Neil A.; Fisher, Kim M.; Lapointe, Bernard; Souich, Patrick du; Chary, Srini; Moulin, Dwight; Sellers, Ed; Ngoc, Anh Ho (2007). "An Open-Label, Multi-Dose Efficacy and Safety Study of Intramuscular Tetrodotoxin in Patients with Severe Cancer-Related Pain". Journal of Pain and Symptom Management. 34 (2): 171–182. doi: 10.1016/j.jpainsymman.2006.11.008 . PMID   17662911.
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